“Minority communities may provide officers an implicit visual heuristic that they can expect to encounter dangerous and uncooperative residents… Officers may be implicitly interpreting Black neighborhoods as inherently dangerous and uncooperative."
“Most [police officers in] our sample believed that there has been a war on cops in recent years” & “Although recent analyses suggest that widespread increases in violent crime or assaults on police officers have not occurred to date."
“Agencies have historically been reluctant to make their use-of-force data public… Perhaps police leaders and politicians are concerned about the backlash that could result if their data uncover evidence of bias or excessive force."
“Using street stops [as the denominator], black citizens were approximately 2.5 times as likely to be fatally shot in 2015 and 2016, and about 2.4 times as likely to be fatally shot in 2017."
“Black citizens were more likely than white citizens to be shot at when comparing the known race/ethnicity of citizens who discharged firearms against officers in California” (but fatalities were not significantly different nationally).