STUDIES:   

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In a review of 75 police departments' use-of-force guidelines, finds: - 51% mention mental health; - 31% require exhaustion of non-force alternatives; - 27% require intervening in excessive use of force; - 17% require force to be proportional to threat; - 12% mention bias

The Endogenous Fourth Amendment: An Empirical Assessment of How Police Understandings of Excessive Force Become Constitutional Law The Endogenous Fourth Amendment: An Empirical Assessment of How Police Understandings of Excessive Force Become Constitutional Law
The Endogenous Fourth Amendment: An Empirical Assessment of How Police Understandings of Excessive Force Become Constitutional Law
Cornell Law Review
Obasogie, Osagie K. / Newman, Zachary
Vol. 104 Issue 5, pp. 1281–1335, 2019
https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/clr/vol104/iss5/3/
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