“Persons of African and Hispanic descent were stopped more frequently than whites, even after controlling for precinct variability and race-specific estimates of crime participation."
Minority police officers “are less lenient. One plausible explanation for this is that these minority segments … feel the need to prove themselves to the largest (and culturally and administratively dominant) group in the police force, namely the white-male officers."
“Minority citizens may be exposed to a racial or ethnic ‘double jeopardy,’ whereby they are subjected to both unconstitutional stops and disparate rates of force during those stops."
“The burden of [Marijuana in Public View] arrest has been falling disproportionately on blacks and Hispanics and that members of these minority groups, on average, have been receiving harsher treatment within the criminal justice system."
“White police are, indeed, more racially resentful, more likely to see blacks as violent, and more likely to minimize anti-black discrimination than are white nonpolice."
A critique of Fryer: “If even a small subset of police have propensities to more frequently encounter black relative to white individuals, then analyses of pooled encounter-conditional data will fail to detect systemic anti-black racial disparities."
“Policing and racism have been mutually constitutive in the United States. … War on Drugs policing strategies… have created specific conditions conducive to police brutality targeting Black communities."
“Findings suggest neighborhood mobility, in and of itself, may not provide sufficient protection for blacks from the racialized policing and prosecutorial systems that have produced inequality in likelihood of incarceration."