“Racism [is] a cognitive predisposition to associate particular ethnic groups with…particular types of crimes… Police in turn act on their dispositions in ways that are self-confirming. Thus, police cultural biases against minority groups tend to become self-fulfilling."
“Because the Black community is subject to much greater police surveillance, they are also much more likely to be caught when they break the law than White people who engage in the same forms of criminal activity."
“Our basic finding was that a large share of searches in Missouri are carried out by police forces who appear biased against minority motorists… The police forces that appear biased against black motorists tend to be found in areas with a relatively large white population”
“Readers' memories of Afrocentric features are significantly more pronounced when the news stories concern … violent crime… [In reconstructing photos displayed in crime stories] Afrocentric features were significantly more pronounced than the actual photograph depicted."
“In this book African-American police officers provide much evidence of everyday racism in the routine operation of policing… The racial hostility and discrimination … are commonplace, recurring… and damaging to… both officers and civilians."
“Police stops could also involve psychological violence, typically in the form of name-calling, unnecessary physical threats, and … gratuitous prolonged discomfort… Participants reported that officers referred to their ‘black asses’ and called local women ‘bitches.'"
On implicit bias: “This process is a diffuse andlargely unconscious one. It does not require bigoted or mean-spirited officers. Nor does it require officers to even notice that they are stopping minorities at higher and unexplainable rates."
“Police were more likely to use physical force against Black and Hispanic males not in custody compared to White non-custodial males, even after controlling for citizen resistance and other theoretically important factors."
“When officers were given no information other than a face and when they were explicitly directed to make judgments of criminality, race played a significant role in how those judgments were made."