“When individuals stopped by the Strike Force on these occasions had money, it was typically seized by the officers… Most of these encounters had no relation to gang activity… [and] almost always involved a person of color."
“A mixed pattern of disparity where minority officers are disproportion- ately represented in formally documented complaints but appear to receive similar treatment as White officers in the subsequent decisions on allegation guilt and proscription of penalty."
“The study confirmed that police stops and identity checks in Paris are princi- pally based on the appearance of the person stopped, rather than on their behavior or actions. Persons perceived to be ethnic minorities were disproportionately stopped by the police… Blacks were overall six times more likely than Whites to be stopped by police”
Found no impact of minority police representation on citizen complaints but a strong effect of police unions: “Percentage [of complaints] sustained for agencies authorizing collective bargaining … was 7%, compared to 15% among those not authorizing collective bargaining."
“The law-and-order policy of the United States… focused only on the visible delinquency of the lower class… as opposed to the veiled criminality of the well-to-do… [targeting] retail sales and consumption of drugs in segregated Black and Latino neighborhoods."
“African Americans and Latinos who had been stopped and disrespected by the police were less willing to assist them and less likely to believe that the police care … Contact with the police, by itself, had no negative effects on attitudes… police treatment [did]."
“For whites , anti-black racial stereotyping was a significant positive predictor of approval for the use of both reasonable and excessive force against a black offender, but had a negative or non-significant effect when the offender was white."
“65.3% [of emergency physicians] estimated recognising two or more cases of suspected excessive use of force [by police] per year among their patients.” & “EPs have legal responsibilities for reporting many types of assaultive injuries [but not] by police officers."
“Our results strongly suggest that officers are more likely to conduct a search if the race of the motorist differs from the race of the officer… Preference-based discrimination plays a substantial role in explaining differences in…[searches of] different racial groups."
“Cases involving African-American offenders and African-American victims were 3.9% less likely to be cleared than similar cases involving white victims and white offenders… Racial disparities in police clearance of violent criminal cases remain troublesome."
“Nonmoving stops are more discretionary and should be expected to be more prone to extralegal considerations on the part of officers. This expectation was generally supported as African American drivers were more likely to experience a nonmoving stop by local police."