2016 | Police Research

901/

“Despite whether police officers’ racial attitudes, either explicit or implicit, are the primary cause, there is clear evidence of disparate policing outcomes for racial minorities. Just because the empirical literature may not prove whether these outcomes are primarily driven by officer level racial bias."

893/

“Police violence against black women is underreported, under-documented, and under-highlighted. Black women are left with these questions: Who do I call to police the police? … How do we unlearn these stereotypes about Black women and ensure that their futures are not jeopardized by police violence?"

805/

“Focusing first on high-crime areas, in majority black and majority Hispanic block groups … the increase in [police] stops in the week after a homicide is much greater than in all other block groups."

797/

“Individuals who are male, older, from the South, and maintain more conservative political views are more likely to support the use of force by the police… Racial resentment plays a strong role in predicting support for the use of force by police … among whites."

“Minority youth experiences during police encounters are overwhelmingly negative… Further, youth experienced little in the way of service or protection… Minority youth-police encounters represented in these studies were dehumanizing and morally excluding."

770/

“Virtually every officer shares some responsibility for protecting [bad] officers. We should not expect kids to trust the police when officers lie and cover for fellow officers… Little contributes more to Black teens’ sense of powerlessness than this blue wall of silence."

Documents media’s criminalization of unarmed Black victims of police. “Simply regurgitating all information provided, most of which comes from the same law enforcement agencies involved in the altercations and could possibly contain an agenda, is no longer acceptable."

730/

“Participants [Black boys] spoke extensively about altering their behaviors to demonstrate that they were not doing anything wrong especially around police, and enacting the strategies as advised by their parents and family… [but still feared] police harassment."

729/

“Blacks are 37 times more likely to be the victim of a SWAT raid in Huntington, West Virginia, than their white counterparts. Blacks in Ogden, Utah, are 39 times more likely to be subjected to a SWAT raid and Blacks in Burlington, North Carolina, are 47 times more likely."

716/

“Research on police officers and stereotype threat suggests that police officers with more confidence in their ability to command respect and handle volatile situations are less likely than…officers without such confidence to shoot noncompliant but unarmed Black suspects."

714/

“The racially skewed exercise of police discretion ensures that the net of criminality is cast broadly for people of color and is… rather narrow for White Americans. This over-breath, in turn ensures that ‘checks’ for criminality structurally disadvantage people of color."

713/

“Regression analyses for high school students [but not street youth] indicate that… among youth who engage in roughly similar types of behaviour, and similar levels of delinquency, black youth are stopped and searched more often than white youth."

702/

“While the majority of mass school shootings… have been in largely White, middle-class rural or suburban communities, the increased police presence [as a result of those shootings] has been most prevalent in low-income schools, with majority non-White populations."

699/

“For Black and mixed-‘race’ victims of crime the racialized processes of victim blaming and treatment as suspect damage trust and confidence in the police as a fair and legitimate institution. This has a significant impact on willingness to approach the police."

698/

"‘In short, people who belong to marginalized communities are at a higher risk of being shot than those who are not.'" & “The data show that the problems encountered with police violence are systemic, not merely a case of individual ‘bad apples.'"

697/

“In Ottawa, Middle Easterner and Black groups… are the two race groups with disproportionately high incidences of traffic stops… Black Drivers were stopped 2.3 times more than what you would expect based on their population."

696/

“The pervasive influence of racial stereotypes may cause officers to perceive racial minorities as threatening. The same phenomenon may also influence juries. The limited empirical evidence available suggests that implicit bias importantly influences jury decision-making."

695/

“Feeling disrespected during their most recent stop was associated with negative attitudes toward the police.” & “How [officers] control a stop… can have a longstanding influence concerning how the youth may relate to enforcement efforts in the future."

694/

“If the data used to initiate [an automated police decision system] is biased the ‘actionable intelligence’… will likely also be biased… The resulting… arrests will likely generate even more bad data, which is then fed back… and so on.” (@jvagle)

693/

“Analysis also showed black people were killed by police at more than double the rate for whites… Of the African Americans killed by police, 25% were unarmed, while 17% of the whites killed were unarmed.” & “‘Most police shootings are preventable.'"

692/

“Participants with low racial bias… who are typically supportive of policing policy reform, were significantly less supportive when exposed to threatening media images of Black men.” & “Associating Black men with threat significantly predicts… [support of] lethal force."

691/

“Evidence of exclusive predatory use of [police] dogs against African Americans.” & “‘This disparity suggests that race may play an impermissible role in officers’ decisions to deploy canines.'” & “Unleashing vicious dogs on blacks confirmed their devalued status."

690/

“He … had trouble comprehending why he was stopped by the police when he was an A student who did not sag his pants and did not perceive himself as a ‘thug’ or ‘thief.'” & “A psychiatric consultation revealed that Jamal was actually experiencing trauma [as a result]."

675/

“We… isolated the effect of race from criminal history… Black defendants were still 77 percent more likely to be pegged as at higher risk of committing a future violent crime… The algorithm used to create the Florida risk scores is a product of a for-profit company."

628/

“Cases involving victims of color… are likely to have more investigatory blame justifications as compared with White victims, meaning they are likely to have fewer investigative steps completed and ultimately less likely to have an arrest, a referral, or both."

613/

“Blacks had 2.8 times the rate of legal intervention death compared with whites… In most cases, at least one involved officer was white (84.3%)” & “Black victims were significantly more likely to be unarmed …[and] less likely… to have posed an immediate threat to LE."

“Those from BME groups were 3 times as likely to be stopped and searched as those who are White. In particular, those who are Black (or Black British) were over 6 times more likely to be stopped. In both cases these figures were higher than the previous year."

532/

“A computer… shifts accountability from departmental decision-makers to black-box machinery that purports to be scientific, evidence-based and race-neutral. Predictive policing is simply reproducing and magnifying the same biases the police have historically held."

490/

“Decades of criminology research have shown that crime reports… primarily document law enforcement’s response to the reports they receive… rather than [a]… complete record of … crimes that occur… As a result, current systems reinforce bias and sanitize injustice."

460/

“Higher-income African Americans report being stopped at about 1.5 times the rate of higher-income white Americans” & “African Americans are nearly twice as likely as white Americans to report a police officer swearing at them.” & “65% think police … racially profile."

“Pervasive stereotypes linking Blacks and Latinos with violence, crime, and even specifically weapons are likely to cause [police] to make misattributions in…the intentions and behaviors of citizens. This can lead to racially disparate rates of…arrests and use of force."

398/

“An officer’s testimony that he/she feared for his/her life, that he/she was in a high-crime area, that it was late at night, and that he/she thought the suspect had a gun, will often be enough to support the conclusion that the officer acted reasonably."

382/

“Distinguishing between participants who approved of police violence and those who did not… race was the strongest predictor… In addition, participants were twice as likely to attribute disparities… to… less in-born ability to learn …rather than to discrimination."

358/

“Racial discrimination in school discipline is a real problem.” & “A police officer’s regular presence at a school is predictive of greater odds that school officials refer students to law enforcement for … lower-level offenses that … teachers should handle themselves."

350/

“Results revealed that black citizens were no more likely than white ones to display noncompliance, and the strength of their resistance did not vary across officer race. White officers used higher levels of force against black suspects (controlling for resistance)."

338/

“State mandatory expulsion laws predict a 0.5 percentage point increase in suspensions and a nearly 3-times larger increase in the rate of suspension of Black students than White students… while, in the view of principals, not reducing overall levels of misbehavior."

310/

Finds significant under-reporting of “legal intervention homicides” in several national systems, but finds from available data that “the annual rate of police homicide (0.24/100‚000) varied 5-fold by state and 8-fold by race/ethnicity."

308/

“Incidents with white statutory rape victims had higher arrest odds irrespective of the offender’s race, whereas incidents with minority race/ethnicity victims tended to have fewer arrests."

306/

“The black-on-white homicide rate is a significant predictor of officer-involved killings whereas black-on-black homicides and measures for political and economic threat are unrelated to police killings… consistent with a body of … evidence of police discrimination."

303/

“Camera-friendly policing suggests that raising police visibility may not reveal undisciplined police work, but offer the police a sophisticated mechanism with which to conceal undisciplined police work… to act more disciplined.

“The Warrior officer may enter into encounters with low income, Black males with a mindset of control and an expectation of a lack of deference among the subject… The Warrior mindset could actually produce the lack of deference the officer expected."

“Rationale and intent to harm by an assailant in general assaults differs substantially from those of law enforcement personnel [yet] the severity of the injuries suffered by the patients in both groups are nearly identical, [despite police]… training to minimize harm."

“The initial approach of officers toward young Black males needs to reflect a nonoffensive tone of voice and language and a show of respect."

158/

“People hold subconscious beliefs that Black youth are perceived as adult-like, and Black male adults are subhuman, superhuman, criminal, and violent. … Police work attracts individuals with … high collective identity orientation, conformity and power values."

140/

“A spurious association showing no bias precisely because there is bias.” @uri_sohn further explains by way of example the Fryer methodological issue.

137/

“Properly interpreted, … Fryer’s analysis is that the racial disparity in arrest rates is larger than the racial disparity in police shootings. This is an unsurprising finding, and proves neither a lack of bias nor … of systematic discrimination."

133/

“The overwhelming majority of SWAT raids it studied were for … serving a search warrant in drug cases, not cases involving violence. [This] erodes public trust, particularly in communities of color, and turns what should be a peaceful encounter into a paramilitary raid."

130/

“Gender nonconforming young women of color … appear to be disproportionately affected by exclusionary discipline policies and policing in schools… exacerbated by the cumulative institutional betrayals they endure."

129/

"[I was] a public defender, as … [NYC] transformed [to] … zero-tolerance policing that was confined almost entirely to communities of color and vulnerable populations…" and “This policing favors the rich and disfavors … particularly poor people of color."

120/

“While the adverse effects of stop-and-frisk on blacks and Hispanics are largely attributable to heavy use of the tactic in high-crime, predominately minority areas, there still appears to be an element of racial bias."

118/

“Fram[ing] excessive force as a problem that derives from rogue police officers … obscures the structural dimensions of police violence and ignores … that conscious racial animosity likely accounts for a small percentage of racially-inflicted police conduct."

97/

“For a sample of Syracuse Police stop data… The odds of a black driver being stopped (relative to nonblack drivers) increase 15% in daylight [when race is more easily observed] as compared to darkness."

94/

“The research above highlights the potentially widespread effects of implicit racial biases in policing… [Police] may be more inclined to pay particular attention to non-White individuals when they are on patrol."

66/

“Police and peace officers need to be retrained to understand their own racial biases and formulate more equitable approaches to the treatment of individuals who they have not readily encountered during their upbringing."

64/

“Police used less force with highly stereotypical Whites, and this protective effect was stronger than the effect for non-Whites… Bias is a protective factor for Whites, but not for non-Whites."

33/

“Milwaukee’s neighborhoods, especially residents of black neighborhoods, were far less likely to report crime after [Frank] Jude’s beating was broadcast. The effect lasted for over a year and resulted in a total net loss of approximately 22,200 calls for service."

15/

“African-American males are up to 8% more likely to receive a frisk during a traffic stop when compared to an equivalent Caucasian driver."

11/

Black and Hispanic men that police officers perceive as “very large… had the greatest odds of having force used upon them."

10/

“Individuals living in a neighborhood where a greater proportion of black or Latino stops involve force … are more likely to perceive their own health as poor/fair, to be diagnosed with diabetes and high blood pressure, and to be overweight/obese."

9/

“Incidents of extreme violence against police officers can lead to periods of substantially increased racial disparities in the use of police force."

67 entries found for 2016

“Focusing first on high-crime areas, in majority black and majority Hispanic block groups … the increase in [police] stops in the week after a homicide is much greater than in all other block groups."

“Individuals who are male, older, from the South, and maintain more conservative political views are more likely to support the use of force by the police… Racial resentment plays a strong role in predicting support for the use of force by police … among whites."

“Although routinely called upon as a solution to strained police-minority community relationships, increasing minority representation in police departments does not appear to be related to decreased assaults on police… unlikely to address the contextual problems."

“Minority youth experiences during police encounters are overwhelmingly negative… Further, youth experienced little in the way of service or protection… Minority youth-police encounters represented in these studies were dehumanizing and morally excluding."

“Virtually every officer shares some responsibility for protecting [bad] officers. We should not expect kids to trust the police when officers lie and cover for fellow officers… Little contributes more to Black teens’ sense of powerlessness than this blue wall of silence."

“Race… revealed significant influences on the perception of police homophobia related to same-sex IPV. White respondents were approximately twice as likely to report feeling more comfortable with disclosing same-sex IPV to the police than their nonwhite counter-parts."

Documents media’s criminalization of unarmed Black victims of police. “Simply regurgitating all information provided, most of which comes from the same law enforcement agencies involved in the altercations and could possibly contain an agenda, is no longer acceptable."

“Participants [Black boys] spoke extensively about altering their behaviors to demonstrate that they were not doing anything wrong especially around police, and enacting the strategies as advised by their parents and family… [but still feared] police harassment."

“Blacks are 37 times more likely to be the victim of a SWAT raid in Huntington, West Virginia, than their white counterparts. Blacks in Ogden, Utah, are 39 times more likely to be subjected to a SWAT raid and Blacks in Burlington, North Carolina, are 47 times more likely."

“Research on police officers and stereotype threat suggests that police officers with more confidence in their ability to command respect and handle volatile situations are less likely than…officers without such confidence to shoot noncompliant but unarmed Black suspects."

“The racially skewed exercise of police discretion ensures that the net of criminality is cast broadly for people of color and is… rather narrow for White Americans. This over-breath, in turn ensures that ‘checks’ for criminality structurally disadvantage people of color."

“Regression analyses for high school students [but not street youth] indicate that… among youth who engage in roughly similar types of behaviour, and similar levels of delinquency, black youth are stopped and searched more often than white youth."

“While the majority of mass school shootings… have been in largely White, middle-class rural or suburban communities, the increased police presence [as a result of those shootings] has been most prevalent in low-income schools, with majority non-White populations."

“For Black and mixed-‘race’ victims of crime the racialized processes of victim blaming and treatment as suspect damage trust and confidence in the police as a fair and legitimate institution. This has a significant impact on willingness to approach the police."

"‘In short, people who belong to marginalized communities are at a higher risk of being shot than those who are not.'" & “The data show that the problems encountered with police violence are systemic, not merely a case of individual ‘bad apples.'"

“In Ottawa, Middle Easterner and Black groups… are the two race groups with disproportionately high incidences of traffic stops… Black Drivers were stopped 2.3 times more than what you would expect based on their population."

“The pervasive influence of racial stereotypes may cause officers to perceive racial minorities as threatening. The same phenomenon may also influence juries. The limited empirical evidence available suggests that implicit bias importantly influences jury decision-making."

“Feeling disrespected during their most recent stop was associated with negative attitudes toward the police.” & “How [officers] control a stop… can have a longstanding influence concerning how the youth may relate to enforcement efforts in the future."

“If the data used to initiate [an automated police decision system] is biased the ‘actionable intelligence’… will likely also be biased… The resulting… arrests will likely generate even more bad data, which is then fed back… and so on.” (@jvagle)

“Analysis also showed black people were killed by police at more than double the rate for whites… Of the African Americans killed by police, 25% were unarmed, while 17% of the whites killed were unarmed.” & “‘Most police shootings are preventable.'"

“Participants with low racial bias… who are typically supportive of policing policy reform, were significantly less supportive when exposed to threatening media images of Black men.” & “Associating Black men with threat significantly predicts… [support of] lethal force."

“Evidence of exclusive predatory use of [police] dogs against African Americans.” & “‘This disparity suggests that race may play an impermissible role in officers’ decisions to deploy canines.'” & “Unleashing vicious dogs on blacks confirmed their devalued status."

“He … had trouble comprehending why he was stopped by the police when he was an A student who did not sag his pants and did not perceive himself as a ‘thug’ or ‘thief.'” & “A psychiatric consultation revealed that Jamal was actually experiencing trauma [as a result]."

“We… isolated the effect of race from criminal history… Black defendants were still 77 percent more likely to be pegged as at higher risk of committing a future violent crime… The algorithm used to create the Florida risk scores is a product of a for-profit company."

“Cases involving victims of color… are likely to have more investigatory blame justifications as compared with White victims, meaning they are likely to have fewer investigative steps completed and ultimately less likely to have an arrest, a referral, or both."

“Blacks had 2.8 times the rate of legal intervention death compared with whites… In most cases, at least one involved officer was white (84.3%)” & “Black victims were significantly more likely to be unarmed …[and] less likely… to have posed an immediate threat to LE."

“Race was the primary factor for determining who was stopped by the NYPD during stop and frisk policies, even in racially diverse neighborhoods. Black people comprised 31% of the LGBTQ-related victims [of police]."

“Those from BME groups were 3 times as likely to be stopped and searched as those who are White. In particular, those who are Black (or Black British) were over 6 times more likely to be stopped. In both cases these figures were higher than the previous year."

“A computer… shifts accountability from departmental decision-makers to black-box machinery that purports to be scientific, evidence-based and race-neutral. Predictive policing is simply reproducing and magnifying the same biases the police have historically held."

“Decades of criminology research have shown that crime reports… primarily document law enforcement’s response to the reports they receive… rather than [a]… complete record of … crimes that occur… As a result, current systems reinforce bias and sanitize injustice."

“Higher-income African Americans report being stopped at about 1.5 times the rate of higher-income white Americans” & “African Americans are nearly twice as likely as white Americans to report a police officer swearing at them.” & “65% think police … racially profile."

“Police work attracts people who endorse color-blind racial beliefs” & “Color-blind racial beliefs are considered a contemporary form of racism … people who endorse these beliefs can use them to minimize the racial biases present in the criminal justice system."

“Pervasive stereotypes linking Blacks and Latinos with violence, crime, and even specifically weapons are likely to cause [police] to make misattributions in…the intentions and behaviors of citizens. This can lead to racially disparate rates of…arrests and use of force."

“An officer’s testimony that he/she feared for his/her life, that he/she was in a high-crime area, that it was late at night, and that he/she thought the suspect had a gun, will often be enough to support the conclusion that the officer acted reasonably."

“Distinguishing between participants who approved of police violence and those who did not… race was the strongest predictor… In addition, participants were twice as likely to attribute disparities… to… less in-born ability to learn …rather than to discrimination."

“Racial discrimination in school discipline is a real problem.” & “A police officer’s regular presence at a school is predictive of greater odds that school officials refer students to law enforcement for … lower-level offenses that … teachers should handle themselves."

“Results revealed that black citizens were no more likely than white ones to display noncompliance, and the strength of their resistance did not vary across officer race. White officers used higher levels of force against black suspects (controlling for resistance)."

“State mandatory expulsion laws predict a 0.5 percentage point increase in suspensions and a nearly 3-times larger increase in the rate of suspension of Black students than White students… while, in the view of principals, not reducing overall levels of misbehavior."

Finds significant under-reporting of “legal intervention homicides” in several national systems, but finds from available data that “the annual rate of police homicide (0.24/100‚000) varied 5-fold by state and 8-fold by race/ethnicity."

“Incidents with white statutory rape victims had higher arrest odds irrespective of the offender’s race, whereas incidents with minority race/ethnicity victims tended to have fewer arrests."

“The black-on-white homicide rate is a significant predictor of officer-involved killings whereas black-on-black homicides and measures for political and economic threat are unrelated to police killings… consistent with a body of … evidence of police discrimination."

“Camera-friendly policing suggests that raising police visibility may not reveal undisciplined police work, but offer the police a sophisticated mechanism with which to conceal undisciplined police work… to act more disciplined.

“Police were 1.65 times more likely to use the ECD [e.g., Taser] against Black subjects in non-high-violent-crime areas.” & “Having a Black subject was positively related to police use of ECDs instead of soft hand control."

“The Warrior officer may enter into encounters with low income, Black males with a mindset of control and an expectation of a lack of deference among the subject… The Warrior mindset could actually produce the lack of deference the officer expected."

“Our results do not support the idea that resisting arrest reflects the social status of suspects. African Americans are no more resistant … than Whites. This result is consistent with most prior research… Any tendency for Black suspects to be defiant is offset by fear."

“Rationale and intent to harm by an assailant in general assaults differs substantially from those of law enforcement personnel [yet] the severity of the injuries suffered by the patients in both groups are nearly identical, [despite police]… training to minimize harm."

For black people, “police violence increased fragmentation and decreased cohesion and healthy social networks. Stress and worry, resulting from fear of police harassment and a sense of disempowerment, were reported as contributors to community fragmentation and poor health”

“The initial approach of officers toward young Black males needs to reflect a nonoffensive tone of voice and language and a show of respect."

“People hold subconscious beliefs that Black youth are perceived as adult-like, and Black male adults are subhuman, superhuman, criminal, and violent. … Police work attracts individuals with … high collective identity orientation, conformity and power values."

“A spurious association showing no bias precisely because there is bias.” @uri_sohn further explains by way of example the Fryer methodological issue.

“Properly interpreted, … Fryer’s analysis is that the racial disparity in arrest rates is larger than the racial disparity in police shootings. This is an unsurprising finding, and proves neither a lack of bias nor … of systematic discrimination."

“The overwhelming majority of SWAT raids it studied were for … serving a search warrant in drug cases, not cases involving violence. [This] erodes public trust, particularly in communities of color, and turns what should be a peaceful encounter into a paramilitary raid."

“Gender nonconforming young women of color … appear to be disproportionately affected by exclusionary discipline policies and policing in schools… exacerbated by the cumulative institutional betrayals they endure."

"[I was] a public defender, as … [NYC] transformed [to] … zero-tolerance policing that was confined almost entirely to communities of color and vulnerable populations…" and “This policing favors the rich and disfavors … particularly poor people of color."

“While the adverse effects of stop-and-frisk on blacks and Hispanics are largely attributable to heavy use of the tactic in high-crime, predominately minority areas, there still appears to be an element of racial bias."

“Fram[ing] excessive force as a problem that derives from rogue police officers … obscures the structural dimensions of police violence and ignores … that conscious racial animosity likely accounts for a small percentage of racially-inflicted police conduct."

“For a sample of Syracuse Police stop data… The odds of a black driver being stopped (relative to nonblack drivers) increase 15% in daylight [when race is more easily observed] as compared to darkness."

“The research above highlights the potentially widespread effects of implicit racial biases in policing… [Police] may be more inclined to pay particular attention to non-White individuals when they are on patrol."

“Police and peace officers need to be retrained to understand their own racial biases and formulate more equitable approaches to the treatment of individuals who they have not readily encountered during their upbringing."

“Police used less force with highly stereotypical Whites, and this protective effect was stronger than the effect for non-Whites… Bias is a protective factor for Whites, but not for non-Whites."

“Milwaukee’s neighborhoods, especially residents of black neighborhoods, were far less likely to report crime after [Frank] Jude’s beating was broadcast. The effect lasted for over a year and resulted in a total net loss of approximately 22,200 calls for service."

“African-American males are up to 8% more likely to receive a frisk during a traffic stop when compared to an equivalent Caucasian driver."

Black and Hispanic men that police officers perceive as “very large… had the greatest odds of having force used upon them."

“Individuals living in a neighborhood where a greater proportion of black or Latino stops involve force … are more likely to perceive their own health as poor/fair, to be diagnosed with diabetes and high blood pressure, and to be overweight/obese."

“Incidents of extreme violence against police officers can lead to periods of substantially increased racial disparities in the use of police force."