2017 | Police Research

895/

“Certainly it would be better if police were better trained, better supervised, and better equipped to serve the areas they patrol. But from our perspective, the focus on misbehavior is scapegoating. It insulates mainstream institutions—the police department, public officials, and the public—from blame for what we ask systems of policing to do on our behalf."

891/

“Historically there has always been a double standard in the way police officers are treated when they commit violence against Blacks. Officers are often excused while victims are often blamed for their own deaths… The list of Blacks being blamed for their deaths at the hands of police officers is extensive."

787/

“More specifically, greater minority representation in law enforcement does not appear to reduce disparities in traffic stops… members of racial/ethnic minority groups are more likely to be stopped when police perceive them as being ‘out of place.'"

765/

“Almost half of young Black boys have been arrested by age 23 compared to 30% of White boys.” & “Youth arrests reduce the likelihood of completing high school… [and] create barriers to admission into colleges.” & “A criminal history reduces the likelihood of getting a job”

719/

“New digitized surveillance practices broaden the scope of people law enforcement can track… The likelihood of being inputted into the system is… based on department crime statistics… [potentially reflecting] unequal enforcement… along lines of race [and] class."

"[Traditional police culture] TPC tends to incorporate distrust toward… citizens… a desire to avoid supervisor scrutiny… and permissiveness toward misconduct." & “Black [police] managers were less likely to endorse TPC than White managers."

687/

“Less restrictive policies, with respect to TASER® placement, result in more TASER® usage… We also see a race effect. More specifically, officers are more likely to use a TASER® on both Black and ‘other’ race suspects compared to their White counterparts."

686/

“When algorithms in the criminal justice system rely upon data that contains racial bias, the machine learning algorithms that use this data to make predictions will inevitably reflect that racial bias…despite any claims that an algorithm is ‘race neutral.'"

685/

“The bill… provided that disciplinary records relating to the use of deadly force, … sexual assault, unjustified stops and arrests, racial profiling, discriminatory treatment, … would be available for public inspection… The police union lobby opposed SB 1286."

684/

While experiencing psychiatric crisis at similar rates, “African-Americans are more likely to be brought to the ER by police than whites and those who are brought to the ER by police are even more likely to be involuntarily committed” (@MichaelLPerlin @cuc1699)

683/

“The results indicate that civilians killed by the police who are other races/ethnicities are more likely than Whites to pose no clear threat… The difference between Whites and Blacks in the likelihood of posing no clear threat is not statistically significant."

681/

“Blacks are likely to be viewed as criminal, and criminals are assumed to be Black.” & “Officers are more likely to use force against individuals who have a mental illness… such individuals may be viewed as unpredictable and as prone to criminal behavior.” @MiltonetteJDPhD

680/

“The evidence is robust regarding the ubiquitous implicit bias that exists in society and, more specifically, in police officers; however, implicit bias in police officers does not necessarily mean that they will respond to African Americans with explicit bias."

“Stops of blacks and Hispanics were typically based on less evidence than stops of whites. For example, 49% of blacks and 34% of Hispanics stopped under suspicion of [criminal weapon possession] had less than a 1% chance of possessing a weapon, compared to 19% of whites."

677/

Minorities “commented favourably when they were treated with dignity, even when stopped on suspicion of criminal behaviour and when arrested… Disproportionate use of force and inappropriate language [were reported] almost exclusively [by] African Americans and Latinos."

676/

“African American and HBCU students in Baton Rouge were more likely than their White, traditional university counterparts to have more negative attitudes toward the police… Majority of African American and HBCU respondents agreed that police tend to use excessive force."

674/

Clearance rates for homicides with Latino or Black victims are significantly lower than homicides with White victims. Additionally, “the odds of a death penalty charge are 62–65% lower for cases with Black victims and 47–49% lower for cases with Latino victims."

673/

“Police departments in labor markets with larger Black and Hispanic populations, are more likely to have an underrepresentation of Black and Hispanic officers relative to the local population…[attenuated by] Black/Hispanic presence among top administrators.” @familyunequal

672/

Finds that conservatives, Republicans, whites, those with lower education, and those less attentive to news are more likely to see police killings of Black people as isolated incidents rather than as indicative of a broader problem.

671/

“White respondents were more likely to approve of police striking citizens in some situation, who are vulgar, attempting to escape, [or] attacking the police. White respondents were less likely to approve of police striking murder suspects compared to African American[s]."

Decline of stop & search in England & Wales “has disproportionately favoured white people… Black people… are now six times as likely to be searched, up from four times the previous year… limited evidence to support the theory that stop & search actually reduces crime."

667/

“exhibiting hip-hop culture appearance increases the odds of being arrested by three times… This pattern persists when holding constant all of the other variables in the model (including … suspect demeanor, priors, and seriousness of the offense)."

666/

“The race of officers also shows a statistically significant relationship to pressure to conduct stops. Nonwhite officers are more likely to feel pressure compared with white officers.” & “Less pressure is placed on officers to obey the law, especially in more recent years."

663/

“Concern about police violence, as measured by Google search queries, is associated with elevated rates of homicide and other violent crime” & “[A] standard deviation increase in search activity… is associated with… a 10 percent rise in homicides.” (@MannMarcus)

662/

In a survey of pregnant Black women in Atlanta, “A statistically significant association was observed for antenatal depressive symptoms and anticipated negative African American youth and police experiences” based on two agree/disagree questions.

661/

In primarily Black, low-income cities, “most respondents viewed police negatively across measures of procedural justice, police department legitimacy, police bias, and community policing” but also a “strong belief in the law and [a] willingness to partner with the police."

660/

“Findings for the Black population of Kingston during the study period are very clear: there are large racial disparities in stop rates and likelihood of being stopped regardless of other issues.” & “The results did not support the belief that police stops are about crime."

658/

A “preferential treatment” ethnographic “study of 30 young, middle-class drug dealers” with minimal police interaction. “The visible role of police in the community was largely restricted to enforcing traffic laws and directing traffic.” (@SJacques83)

657/

“Racial threat and federal aid work together in shaping city police spending.” & “Receiving a large COPS grant was positively associated with police spending, especially in cities where Blacks were accounting for a larger percentage of the city population.” (@robvargas21)

655/

“An increase in the proportion of ethnic minority officers in a given year is significantly associated with a decrease in the number of substantiated complaints per officer in the following year.” & “Representative bureaucracy improves organizational integrity."

650/

“Small [belonging & values] changes to the email inviting candidates to take part in a [policing judgment test]… managed to increase the probability that a non-white applicant passed… by 50 per cent, closing the gap in pass rates between non-white and white applicants."

649/

“The results also suggest that there is an inflection point [in the % of black officers] at which black officers may become less likely to discriminate against black citizens and more inclined to assume a minority advocacy role or to become neutral enforcers of the law."

642/

“Notions that cast [racism] in terms of individual officers' racial bias do not offer a complete account of why shootings occur… Minority officers are roughly… proportionately represented among shooters-maybe even overrepresented among some categories of shooters."

640/

Finds police killings by race are commensurate with rates of police contact, but here’s an… interesting… way to conclude a paper on police violence:

639/

“We find strong evidence that establishment of community nonprofits had a substantively meaningful negative effect on murder, violent crime, and property crime.” & “Reconsidering the set of actors and organizations that have the greatest potential to control violent crime."

635/

“In Toronto… stops of white youth… dropped by 28.6%… By contrast… stops of black youth had increased by 42.7%” & “The findings here do reveal a significant amount of police and black youth interactions in neighbourhoods housing a high percentage of whites."

634/

“Fourth Amendment law more generally, provides police officers with an opportunity to target African Americans without violating the law. The over-policing of African Americans… is a problem of bad laws, and not just bad police officers."

627/

“These results suggest that Black girls are viewed as more adult than their white peers at almost all stages of childhood.” & “School-based police officers, among others, may also be more likely to view Black girls as older and less innocent."

626/

“The main conclusion flowing from the present study is that black and Latino officers seem to view citizens more favorably than white officers do. They are significantly more likely to believe that victims deserve police assistance and that they are genuinely helping people”

625/

“It is significantly more likely that assaults involving White male stranger attacks on Black females will result in declined prosecution and never proceed to an arrest or formal case filing” compared with Black male stranger attacks on White females.

624/

“A history of mental illness decreased support for police force for White suspects, but increased support for police force for Black suspects.” & “Only those… [with] warm feelings about Blacks… [had] less support for police force against mentally ill Black suspects."

623/

“For White Americans, negative contact with Black Americans consistently predicted defending the police officer and downplaying the issue of racial injustice.” & “Experiences an individual has with outgroup members predicts how they feel towards the whole outgroup."

612/

“Not only are Black men more likely to be fatally killed by police, they are even more likely when they are unarmed…Every year, roughly 1,000 people are lethally shot by the police—about 10% of whom are unarmed, and 40–50% of these are racial and ethnic minorities."

611/

“In New York City… police stops of pedestrians increased from 90,000 to just under 700,000 between 2002 and 2011” & “Yet scores of studies revealed… high-volume stops and low-level arrests were weakly correlated with crime but showed a strong connection to race."

610/

“Perceived discrimination by the police and security, the most common form of discrimination experienced by the participants, has a particularly negative effect on health outcomes.” (@matkau)

"[Black] men with higher PLE [measure of police discrimination frequency] scores … have higher depressive symptom scores… consistent with empirical evidence documenting the positive association between Black men’s experiences with discrimination and depressive symptoms."

599/

“Unarmed Black targets in threatening attire were marginally more likely to be mistakenly shot compared to unarmed White targets in threatening attire … Marginally more errors were also made against unarmed Blacks in threatening attire compared to Blacks in safe attire."

598/

“Unarmed Black men killed by police in 15 of the former slave-holding states represent 41% of unarmed individuals killed by police across the United States."

597/

“When negative, Black stereotypical information was given about a victim, it significantly colored those victims as being more at fault for their own deaths [by a police officer] compared to when positive, Black counterstereotypical information was provided."

596/

“We find that race and gender shape not only exposure to police contacts but also their associated exchanges” & “Black females expressed … feeling ‘unimportant,’ ‘threatened,’ and ‘manipulated’ in the context of … both voluntary and involuntary encounters."

595/

“Racial profiling occurs virtually irrespective of the race or ethnicity of the police officer who is involved. Instead, police-involved violence seems to be principally attributable to the organizational cultures and institutional norms and roles found in law enforcement."

593/

“The Supreme Court has interpreted the Fourth Amendment to enable and sometimes expressly legalize racial profiling… [which] exposes African Americans not only to the violence of ongoing police surveillance and contact but also to the violence of serious bodily injury."

“Perceptions of the police as unbiased or as biased against Whites motivates… support for the candidate who has been unconditionally supportive of police and antagonistic towards … the Black Lives Matter movement. Perceptions … may be a proxy for anti-Black sentiment."

581/

“The news media adopt certain [law&order or police brutality] frames” & “These findings illustrate how modest modifications in the framing of the police dash-cam video significantly alter people’s support and favorability for the [victim]’s and the police officer’s actions."

580/

“When there is damning video evidence, law enforcement agencies respond quickly and punitively to individualize the wrongdoing and diffuse protest. The self-inflicted act of criminal justice repairs the police reputation as unbiased… propagates a narrative of ‘civility.'"

579/

“White and Black Americans have long had divergent views of police … that have grown further apart in the wake of the publicized succession of police killings of unarmed Black young people and adults.” & “White Americans tend to believe that the police … are fair."

578/

“When Black police officers take off their uniform, do they become the target of racial profiling? Select evidence presented here indicates that it does happen and we documented … that Black officers are subject to the same historical racial stereotypes of criminality."

573/

“Experiencing …police brutality… and having to worry about becoming a victim are all stressors… Deterioration of organs and systems caused by increased allostatic load occurs more frequently in Black populations and can lead to…diabetes, stroke, ulcers…” @ProfAlang

572/

“The targets of reported police sexual violence are overwhelmingly women, and typically women of color who are or are perceived to be involved in the drug or sex trades, or using drugs or alcohol."

535/

"[UK] Black women are more than twice as likely to be arrested as white women in the general population but 10% less likely than white women to be proceeded against following an arrest. This could suggest an over-use of arrest powers, where there is weaker evidence…"

533/

[England] “Black men were more than [3x] more likely to be arrested than White men, whilst Black women and Black boys were also significantly more likely to be arrested than White women and boys. Mixed ethnic men and women were also more than [2x] as likely to be arrested."

524/

“The slowdown significantly reduced proactive policing… Contradicting arguments that systematically decreasing proactive policing should correspond to increased crime … our results reveal that civilian complaints of major crimes declined by approximately 3–6%."

517/

“Having dark skin increased the chances that an African American would be sent to prison, rather than receive probation or have his charges reduced… White men with Afrocentric features like larger lips or fuller noses were more likely to be punished than other white men."

513/

“Presenting stimuli during periods of enhanced representation of cardiac activity was associated with increased salience of racial cues, leading to an increased likelihood of shooting ‘unarmed’ Black individuals [relative to white individuals]."

482/

Geographic information systems [GIS] focus on “microspatial ‘hotspots’ of crime” & “Contrary to official rhetoric about the objectivity and precision of GIS, there is no evidence that they have had meaningful implications for the racialized character of policing."

476/

“Restrict[ing] the federal transfer of military equipment to local police departments…gives the surface appearance of answering the radical challenges presented by insurgent protest [but] it clearly does not actually address the racism and…brutality which sparks revolt."

459/

“Police officers, comedians, and white supremacists all frame their use of racist jokes as an attack against ‘political correctness.'” & “Racist humor facilitates bonding…among white officers, at the same time…they engage in the dehumanization of nonwhite [citizens]."

443/

“Virtually all white officers (92%) but only 29% of their black colleagues say that the country has made the changes needed to assure equal rights for blacks. … The views of white officers differ from those of their black colleagues … [and] from those of whites overall."

“White Americans tend to believe that the police and the courts are fair… Consequently, White Americans are less likely to endorse protests as helpful or positive, and are quicker to label those engaged in collective action as ‘thugs’ or ‘criminals.'"

380/

“The over-policing that criminality (real and perceived) is used to justify… supports the notion that [Black people] are inherently crime-prone, and saddles many with the markers of a criminal record, thus … hampering future economic prospects."

354/

“Big data policing must acknowledge that race is still part of modern policing… This admission pushes back against the facile claim that the issue of race can be removed by ‘objective,’ data-driven policing or that new big data technologies avoid racially biased effects."

345/

“Black male [offender]s were… less likely to have been diagnosed with ADHD, than White males, despite controlling for… behavioral indicators, and prior offending… Black males were approximately 60% as likely to receive psychiatric treatment."

329/

“Police recruits spend 7x as many hours training to shoot than they do training to de-escalate situations.” & “Black people were more likely to be killed by police, more likely to be unarmed and less likely to be threatening someone when killed."

326/

“Police agencies in Missouri have indeed changed their behavior regarding traffic stops in the post-Ferguson era, most likely as a result of the intense public scrutiny… Yet, such a pullback in police activity has not led to more crime."

278/

The circulation of explicitly racist electronic media amongst police officers is widespread and well-documented… Images that depict Obama as a racial threat to police officers are pervasive throughout the digital sphere of police culture."

276/

“Baltimore’s police department… is 44% black, but its FOP has never had a black leader. The D.C. FOP chapter board is mainly white, even though the Metropolitan [PD] is predominately black. The Chicago FOP has no black officers on the executive leadership team."

250/

“For all complaints to the [Chicago] PD, African-Americans are less likely to see their complaints sustained… For officers, male African-American officers are more likely to have complaints levied against them sustained."

246/

Of black civilians killed by police, 18% were killed because the officer inaccurately assumed that the victim had a gun. Such “errors” happen much less frequently with white citizens.

220/

“The number of deaths [by police] per million population among non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic males were 2.8 and 1.7 times higher, respectively, than among White males… Fryer’s assessment of disparities in the use of lethal force was possible for only 1 city."

215/

"[Chicago] PD has tolerated racially discriminatory conduct that not only undermines police legitimacy, but also contributes to the pattern of unreasonable force… illegal and unconstitutional patterns of force on minority communities." – Department of Justice, 2017

174/

“Whites, who make up 77.4% of the population, make up 50.7% of the individuals killed by police … And Blacks are killed while unarmed at an even higher rate: 25.8% … of Blacks killed by police in 2015 were unarmed, while that was true for only 17.9% of Whites."

173/

“Grand jurors [must] contemplate the relevance of race in … the officer’s decision to kill… Correcting a colorblind vision also will help grand jurors to understand what is often cast as the evasive and uncooperative actions of the black victim of police violence."

150/

“The special issue seeks to better understand the range of factors that create and maintain police violence against racial and ethnic minorities and assess the aftermath of this harm. Taken together, these contributions provide … new recommendations, small and large."

135/

“Black women are more likely to experience police use of force—including having a gun drawn on them—during a stop than White women, even after accounting for alternative explanations."

131/

“Victimisation by police appears to be widespread, inequitably distributed across demographic groups and psychologically impactful… Public health efforts … may be needed, particularly in disadvantaged urban communities."

110/

“Living in neighborhoods with large racial disparities in use of force is associated with an increased risk of illness."

99/

“People of color receive more serious charges at the initial booking stage, reflecting decisions made by officers of the San Francisco Police Department."

92/

“Instead of condemning all resistance, constitutional doctrine could and should protect certain forms of non-violent resistance both in police encounters and in later court proceedings. Embracing resistance could help … mitigate racial disparities in criminal justice."

91/

“Black individuals face heightened risks of being the victims of police force, regardless of whether they actually pose a threat and even when officers are consciously egalitarian."

86/

“Rather than addressing those underlying conditions, … policy-makers have chosen to respond with a policy that [] stigmatizes minority residents, that has limited crime-control benefits, and that imposes large negative spillovers on disadvantaged neighborhoods."

85/

“Agencies have historically been reluctant to make their use-of-force data public… Perhaps police leaders and politicians are concerned about the backlash that could result if their data uncover evidence of bias or excessive force."

84/

“It appears that Minneapolis police were using race in deciding whom to stop, but that this does not have any connection with whom they decided to search."

80/

“Minority citizens may be exposed to a racial or ethnic ‘double jeopardy,’ whereby they are subjected to both unconstitutional stops and disparate rates of force during those stops."

78/

“White police are, indeed, more racially resentful, more likely to see blacks as violent, and more likely to minimize anti-black discrimination than are white nonpolice."

52/

8 of the 10 off-duty officers killed by another officer due to mistaken identity were Black.

46/

“The vast majority of killings of whites are committed by other whites, contrary to some folk wisdom … but killings of black males by white people are labeled justifiable more than eight times as often as others."

31/

“Racial disparities in [Kansas City] police stops are concentrated in investigatory vehicle stops… The overwhelming majority of people stopped in this way are innocent, and the experience causes psychological harm and erodes trust in and cooperation with the police."

24/

“stop-and-frisk reduced turnout among registered voters in midterm and mayoral elections… Black, male, and older citizens were the most strongly demobilized by stop-and-frisk."

12/

“Both Black and Latino suspects received higher levels of police force earlier in interactions… When Black and Latino suspects resisted, they received significantly more force than when White suspects resisted."

5/

“Blacks and Hispanics are more than 50 percent more likely to experience some form of force in interactions with police."

2/

“We observe racial disparities in officer respect even in police utterances from the initial 5% of an interaction, suggesting that officers speak differently to community members of different races even before the driver has had the opportunity to say much at all."

1/

“Officers are more likely to shoot Black suspects, even when race-based differences in crime are held constant."

110 entries found for 2017

“More specifically, greater minority representation in law enforcement does not appear to reduce disparities in traffic stops… members of racial/ethnic minority groups are more likely to be stopped when police perceive them as being ‘out of place.'"

“Almost half of young Black boys have been arrested by age 23 compared to 30% of White boys.” & “Youth arrests reduce the likelihood of completing high school… [and] create barriers to admission into colleges.” & “A criminal history reduces the likelihood of getting a job”

“New digitized surveillance practices broaden the scope of people law enforcement can track… The likelihood of being inputted into the system is… based on department crime statistics… [potentially reflecting] unequal enforcement… along lines of race [and] class."

“Political ideologies [right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation] predicted support for excessive use of force… Police using force against subordinate groups (as is often the case) can help maintaining power hierarchies intact."

"[Traditional police culture] TPC tends to incorporate distrust toward… citizens… a desire to avoid supervisor scrutiny… and permissiveness toward misconduct." & “Black [police] managers were less likely to endorse TPC than White managers."

“Less restrictive policies, with respect to TASER® placement, result in more TASER® usage… We also see a race effect. More specifically, officers are more likely to use a TASER® on both Black and ‘other’ race suspects compared to their White counterparts."

“When algorithms in the criminal justice system rely upon data that contains racial bias, the machine learning algorithms that use this data to make predictions will inevitably reflect that racial bias…despite any claims that an algorithm is ‘race neutral.'"

“The bill… provided that disciplinary records relating to the use of deadly force, … sexual assault, unjustified stops and arrests, racial profiling, discriminatory treatment, … would be available for public inspection… The police union lobby opposed SB 1286."

While experiencing psychiatric crisis at similar rates, “African-Americans are more likely to be brought to the ER by police than whites and those who are brought to the ER by police are even more likely to be involuntarily committed” (@MichaelLPerlin @cuc1699)

“The results indicate that civilians killed by the police who are other races/ethnicities are more likely than Whites to pose no clear threat… The difference between Whites and Blacks in the likelihood of posing no clear threat is not statistically significant."

“Blacks are likely to be viewed as criminal, and criminals are assumed to be Black.” & “Officers are more likely to use force against individuals who have a mental illness… such individuals may be viewed as unpredictable and as prone to criminal behavior.” @MiltonetteJDPhD

“The evidence is robust regarding the ubiquitous implicit bias that exists in society and, more specifically, in police officers; however, implicit bias in police officers does not necessarily mean that they will respond to African Americans with explicit bias."

“Relative proportion of police shootings resulting in deaths of unarmed black individuals is approximately 5 times higher than the rate among unarmed white individuals.” & “‘Race-blind’ approaches can increase inequity because they often benefit white individuals more."

“Stops of blacks and Hispanics were typically based on less evidence than stops of whites. For example, 49% of blacks and 34% of Hispanics stopped under suspicion of [criminal weapon possession] had less than a 1% chance of possessing a weapon, compared to 19% of whites."

Minorities “commented favourably when they were treated with dignity, even when stopped on suspicion of criminal behaviour and when arrested… Disproportionate use of force and inappropriate language [were reported] almost exclusively [by] African Americans and Latinos."

“African American and HBCU students in Baton Rouge were more likely than their White, traditional university counterparts to have more negative attitudes toward the police… Majority of African American and HBCU respondents agreed that police tend to use excessive force."

Clearance rates for homicides with Latino or Black victims are significantly lower than homicides with White victims. Additionally, “the odds of a death penalty charge are 62–65% lower for cases with Black victims and 47–49% lower for cases with Latino victims."

“Police departments in labor markets with larger Black and Hispanic populations, are more likely to have an underrepresentation of Black and Hispanic officers relative to the local population…[attenuated by] Black/Hispanic presence among top administrators.” @familyunequal

Finds that conservatives, Republicans, whites, those with lower education, and those less attentive to news are more likely to see police killings of Black people as isolated incidents rather than as indicative of a broader problem.

“White respondents were more likely to approve of police striking citizens in some situation, who are vulgar, attempting to escape, [or] attacking the police. White respondents were less likely to approve of police striking murder suspects compared to African American[s]."

“SDO [Social Dominance Orientation] tends to be higher in police officers compared to members of the general public.” & “Police/civilian contact with an enforcement mindset may also produce the kind of normative ambiguity that promotes racially disparate treatment."

“Across three experiments, when participants wore police-style uniforms, we found evidence for attentional bias toward social targets wearing hoodies… The very act of putting on a police-style uniform introduces attentional bias toward a certain segment of the population."

Decline of stop & search in England & Wales “has disproportionately favoured white people… Black people… are now six times as likely to be searched, up from four times the previous year… limited evidence to support the theory that stop & search actually reduces crime."

“exhibiting hip-hop culture appearance increases the odds of being arrested by three times… This pattern persists when holding constant all of the other variables in the model (including … suspect demeanor, priors, and seriousness of the offense)."

“The race of officers also shows a statistically significant relationship to pressure to conduct stops. Nonwhite officers are more likely to feel pressure compared with white officers.” & “Less pressure is placed on officers to obey the law, especially in more recent years."

“Concern about police violence, as measured by Google search queries, is associated with elevated rates of homicide and other violent crime” & “[A] standard deviation increase in search activity… is associated with… a 10 percent rise in homicides.” (@MannMarcus)

In a survey of pregnant Black women in Atlanta, “A statistically significant association was observed for antenatal depressive symptoms and anticipated negative African American youth and police experiences” based on two agree/disagree questions.

In primarily Black, low-income cities, “most respondents viewed police negatively across measures of procedural justice, police department legitimacy, police bias, and community policing” but also a “strong belief in the law and [a] willingness to partner with the police."

“Findings for the Black population of Kingston during the study period are very clear: there are large racial disparities in stop rates and likelihood of being stopped regardless of other issues.” & “The results did not support the belief that police stops are about crime."

A “preferential treatment” ethnographic “study of 30 young, middle-class drug dealers” with minimal police interaction. “The visible role of police in the community was largely restricted to enforcing traffic laws and directing traffic.” (@SJacques83)

“Racial threat and federal aid work together in shaping city police spending.” & “Receiving a large COPS grant was positively associated with police spending, especially in cities where Blacks were accounting for a larger percentage of the city population.” (@robvargas21)

“An increase in the proportion of ethnic minority officers in a given year is significantly associated with a decrease in the number of substantiated complaints per officer in the following year.” & “Representative bureaucracy improves organizational integrity."

“Small [belonging & values] changes to the email inviting candidates to take part in a [policing judgment test]… managed to increase the probability that a non-white applicant passed… by 50 per cent, closing the gap in pass rates between non-white and white applicants."

“The results also suggest that there is an inflection point [in the % of black officers] at which black officers may become less likely to discriminate against black citizens and more inclined to assume a minority advocacy role or to become neutral enforcers of the law."

“Notions that cast [racism] in terms of individual officers' racial bias do not offer a complete account of why shootings occur… Minority officers are roughly… proportionately represented among shooters-maybe even overrepresented among some categories of shooters."

Finds police killings by race are commensurate with rates of police contact, but here’s an… interesting… way to conclude a paper on police violence:

“We find strong evidence that establishment of community nonprofits had a substantively meaningful negative effect on murder, violent crime, and property crime.” & “Reconsidering the set of actors and organizations that have the greatest potential to control violent crime."

“In Toronto… stops of white youth… dropped by 28.6%… By contrast… stops of black youth had increased by 42.7%” & “The findings here do reveal a significant amount of police and black youth interactions in neighbourhoods housing a high percentage of whites."

“Fourth Amendment law more generally, provides police officers with an opportunity to target African Americans without violating the law. The over-policing of African Americans… is a problem of bad laws, and not just bad police officers."

“These results suggest that Black girls are viewed as more adult than their white peers at almost all stages of childhood.” & “School-based police officers, among others, may also be more likely to view Black girls as older and less innocent."

“The main conclusion flowing from the present study is that black and Latino officers seem to view citizens more favorably than white officers do. They are significantly more likely to believe that victims deserve police assistance and that they are genuinely helping people”

“It is significantly more likely that assaults involving White male stranger attacks on Black females will result in declined prosecution and never proceed to an arrest or formal case filing” compared with Black male stranger attacks on White females.

“A history of mental illness decreased support for police force for White suspects, but increased support for police force for Black suspects.” & “Only those… [with] warm feelings about Blacks… [had] less support for police force against mentally ill Black suspects."

“For White Americans, negative contact with Black Americans consistently predicted defending the police officer and downplaying the issue of racial injustice.” & “Experiences an individual has with outgroup members predicts how they feel towards the whole outgroup."

“Not only are Black men more likely to be fatally killed by police, they are even more likely when they are unarmed…Every year, roughly 1,000 people are lethally shot by the police—about 10% of whom are unarmed, and 40–50% of these are racial and ethnic minorities."

“In New York City… police stops of pedestrians increased from 90,000 to just under 700,000 between 2002 and 2011” & “Yet scores of studies revealed… high-volume stops and low-level arrests were weakly correlated with crime but showed a strong connection to race."

“Perceived discrimination by the police and security, the most common form of discrimination experienced by the participants, has a particularly negative effect on health outcomes.” (@matkau)

“Unjust interactions with police take a psychological toll… When young people, particularly youth of color, experience discrimination, it can affect their worldview as negatively impact… self-esteem, ability to achieve, and other factors related to future goals."

"[Black] men with higher PLE [measure of police discrimination frequency] scores … have higher depressive symptom scores… consistent with empirical evidence documenting the positive association between Black men’s experiences with discrimination and depressive symptoms."

“Unarmed Black targets in threatening attire were marginally more likely to be mistakenly shot compared to unarmed White targets in threatening attire … Marginally more errors were also made against unarmed Blacks in threatening attire compared to Blacks in safe attire."

“Unarmed Black men killed by police in 15 of the former slave-holding states represent 41% of unarmed individuals killed by police across the United States."

“When negative, Black stereotypical information was given about a victim, it significantly colored those victims as being more at fault for their own deaths [by a police officer] compared to when positive, Black counterstereotypical information was provided."

“We find that race and gender shape not only exposure to police contacts but also their associated exchanges” & “Black females expressed … feeling ‘unimportant,’ ‘threatened,’ and ‘manipulated’ in the context of … both voluntary and involuntary encounters."

“Racial profiling occurs virtually irrespective of the race or ethnicity of the police officer who is involved. Instead, police-involved violence seems to be principally attributable to the organizational cultures and institutional norms and roles found in law enforcement."

“The Supreme Court has interpreted the Fourth Amendment to enable and sometimes expressly legalize racial profiling… [which] exposes African Americans not only to the violence of ongoing police surveillance and contact but also to the violence of serious bodily injury."

“Possession … of condoms as evidence of intent to engage in prostitution-related offenses… disparately affects women of color and … LGBTQ people of color who are disproportionately stopped and searched by police and routinely profiled as being engaged in prostitution."

“Social media policing … tactics appear to be used disproportionately in cases relating to urban American communities of color, in ‘gang’ related cases, and in ‘anti-terrorism’ monitoring."

“Perceptions of the police as unbiased or as biased against Whites motivates… support for the candidate who has been unconditionally supportive of police and antagonistic towards … the Black Lives Matter movement. Perceptions … may be a proxy for anti-Black sentiment."

“The news media adopt certain [law&order or police brutality] frames” & “These findings illustrate how modest modifications in the framing of the police dash-cam video significantly alter people’s support and favorability for the [victim]’s and the police officer’s actions."

“When there is damning video evidence, law enforcement agencies respond quickly and punitively to individualize the wrongdoing and diffuse protest. The self-inflicted act of criminal justice repairs the police reputation as unbiased… propagates a narrative of ‘civility.'"

“White and Black Americans have long had divergent views of police … that have grown further apart in the wake of the publicized succession of police killings of unarmed Black young people and adults.” & “White Americans tend to believe that the police … are fair."

“When Black police officers take off their uniform, do they become the target of racial profiling? Select evidence presented here indicates that it does happen and we documented … that Black officers are subject to the same historical racial stereotypes of criminality."

“Experiencing …police brutality… and having to worry about becoming a victim are all stressors… Deterioration of organs and systems caused by increased allostatic load occurs more frequently in Black populations and can lead to…diabetes, stroke, ulcers…” @ProfAlang

“The targets of reported police sexual violence are overwhelmingly women, and typically women of color who are or are perceived to be involved in the drug or sex trades, or using drugs or alcohol."

"[UK] Black women are more than twice as likely to be arrested as white women in the general population but 10% less likely than white women to be proceeded against following an arrest. This could suggest an over-use of arrest powers, where there is weaker evidence…"

[England] “Black men were more than [3x] more likely to be arrested than White men, whilst Black women and Black boys were also significantly more likely to be arrested than White women and boys. Mixed ethnic men and women were also more than [2x] as likely to be arrested."

“The slowdown significantly reduced proactive policing… Contradicting arguments that systematically decreasing proactive policing should correspond to increased crime … our results reveal that civilian complaints of major crimes declined by approximately 3–6%."

“Having dark skin increased the chances that an African American would be sent to prison, rather than receive probation or have his charges reduced… White men with Afrocentric features like larger lips or fuller noses were more likely to be punished than other white men."

“Presenting stimuli during periods of enhanced representation of cardiac activity was associated with increased salience of racial cues, leading to an increased likelihood of shooting ‘unarmed’ Black individuals [relative to white individuals]."

Geographic information systems [GIS] focus on “microspatial ‘hotspots’ of crime” & “Contrary to official rhetoric about the objectivity and precision of GIS, there is no evidence that they have had meaningful implications for the racialized character of policing."

“Restrict[ing] the federal transfer of military equipment to local police departments…gives the surface appearance of answering the radical challenges presented by insurgent protest [but] it clearly does not actually address the racism and…brutality which sparks revolt."

“Police officers, comedians, and white supremacists all frame their use of racist jokes as an attack against ‘political correctness.'” & “Racist humor facilitates bonding…among white officers, at the same time…they engage in the dehumanization of nonwhite [citizens]."

“Virtually all white officers (92%) but only 29% of their black colleagues say that the country has made the changes needed to assure equal rights for blacks. … The views of white officers differ from those of their black colleagues … [and] from those of whites overall."

“Police…have become the primary vehicle through which the state responds to social deprivation”

“White Americans tend to believe that the police and the courts are fair… Consequently, White Americans are less likely to endorse protests as helpful or positive, and are quicker to label those engaged in collective action as ‘thugs’ or ‘criminals.'"

“The over-policing that criminality (real and perceived) is used to justify… supports the notion that [Black people] are inherently crime-prone, and saddles many with the markers of a criminal record, thus … hampering future economic prospects."

“Big data policing must acknowledge that race is still part of modern policing… This admission pushes back against the facile claim that the issue of race can be removed by ‘objective,’ data-driven policing or that new big data technologies avoid racially biased effects."

“Black male [offender]s were… less likely to have been diagnosed with ADHD, than White males, despite controlling for… behavioral indicators, and prior offending… Black males were approximately 60% as likely to receive psychiatric treatment."

“Police recruits spend 7x as many hours training to shoot than they do training to de-escalate situations.” & “Black people were more likely to be killed by police, more likely to be unarmed and less likely to be threatening someone when killed."