“The committee stresses that the origins of policing in the United States are intimately interwoven with the nation’s history of racial prejudice. Although in recent decades police have often made a strong effort to address racially biased behaviors, wide disparities remain in the extent to which non-White people and White people are stopped or arrested by police. “
“Thus, taken together, change in blood pressure offers some qualified evidence that Black participants were more physiologically reactive to … images [of police violence] we presented, especially when they portrayed police force against Black targets."
On televised news, minorities “are presented in ways that appear to be more threatening, as well as being offenders of violent crimes. This both greatly over-represents them when compared to racial crime data and overrepresents the victimization of whites by blacks."
“Two background characteristics, race and educational attainment, exerted a significant effect on work-family conflict. Minority and better educated officers tended to have a lower level of WFC [work-family conflict] than their White and less-educated counterparts."
“We found a positive relationship between segregation and higher levels of [intraracial black homicide rates]… Our analysis revealed that areas of need—those with more extreme white-black residential segregation—displayed generally lower levels of community-policing."
“Programs such as… broken-windows policing shift the object of policing from one of crime to identity, and state-sanctioned profiling helps to create a supposed dichotomy between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ blacks…notion that blackness is an identity of inherent guilt."
“Aggressive policing can also adversely affect the mental health of those targeted and the larger community… Police killings of unarmed black Americans resulted in 55 million poor mental health days annually in the black American community."
“Black fatalities are over seven times as likely as white fatalities to have been of unarmed individuals. Hispanic Americans in comparison also have a significant chance of a fatal encounter with police while being unarmed.” (@DrKLG4Health)
“Police officers justify profiling, stopping, searching, and thus arresting African Americans disproportionately precisely because they are profiled, stopped, searched, and arrested disproportionately."
“Exposure to vicarious UTBP [unfair treatment by police] explained about 12% of the black-white disparity in WC [waist circumference] among women.” & “Our findings suggest there are collateral consequences for people of color … [from] proactive policing practices."
“Black respondents were much more likely (145%) to encounter involuntary police contact.” & “LGB respondents who reported more police contact were significantly more likely to be disadvantaged in relation to existing sexual and racial and economic disparities."
In a review of 30+ papers, finds that “association of [police] contact with attitudes toward the police was estimated to be about three times larger than the race attitudes toward police association."
“The effect of being stopped or arrested on perceptions of the police does not differ among Blacks, Whites, and Latinos. In the base model, the effect of unsatisfactory treatment varies by race/ethnicity and is largest for Whites and smallest for Blacks."
“The analysis finds the association between gentrification and Stop and Frisk to be strong and positive, net tract-level crime rates and other potential factors.” & “The share of the Black … and Latino… population… are strongly associated with Stop and Frisk rates."
“African-American men … ages 20-34 experience police uses of force at a rate roughly 14 times their white peers. Black women in the same age range were about 10 times more likely to experience force than young white women and twice more likely… than young white men."
“We find a relationship between local police-caused deaths of Black people and the probability of [BLM] protest… relationship between grievance and protest.” & “Localities with a more educated population and a larger local college enrollment have more protests."
“Current judgments about the meaning of behaviors like nervousness and flight from police are outdated and ignore the realities of normal adolescent behavior and police-on-black violence that provide black youth with many reasons to flee."
“When young people are repeatedly stopped by police they begin to experience all stops as unfair, regardless of the individual characteristics of those stops… [and] come to believe… that they have been targeted for an unlawful reason, like their race or gender."
“Our data suggest a substantial overrepresentation of people with mental illness among those killed [by police]… Rates of death were the highest for African-Americans with mental illness followed by non-Hispanic Whites with mental illness."
“Stop-and-frisk/search… in London and New York City, shapes the lived experiences of people of color, including students traveling to and from school… Expectations for protection while wearing school uniforms were thwarted by… adultlike treatment from law enforcement."
“Whites… rate the police somewhat less favorably in terms of job performance, trustworthiness, and fairness when the force includes mostly black officers… [A] diverse police force is likely to suffer a loss of… legitimacy among whites as compared with black citizens."
“Implicit bias endangers the lives of African Americans because these citizens’ actions are given different meanings. Blackness means an unarmed man is armed, a cell phone is a gun… While Whiteness means innocent until proven guilty, boys will be boys."
“Big data policing is racially encoded, colored by the history of real-world policing that disproportionality impacts communities of color. Police data comes from the real world, and all of the long-standing discriminatory impacts of … bias color that data."
“Police stereotypes of minority citizens, which conflate race and violent criminality, parallel those of the larger society and may be continuously reinforced by selective personal experience and departmental folklore."
“Police officers may see no strategic advantage in wasting time and cognitive resources on the routine problems that provide the bulk of their day-to-day work… Racial/ethnic stereotypes facilitate rapid dispositional inferences about the likely outcomes of interactions."
“Analyzing policing material…indicators that are being taught to police as evidence of danger and an imminent attack may also be signs of stereotype threat, which can lead police to potentially misinterpret a situation… An innocent citizen…may display these behaviors."
“57% of…reported violent crimes committed against white victims were perpetrated by white offenders… violent crimes committed against black victims, 63 percent were committed by black people… [based on] street crime to the exclusion of organized & white-collar crime."
“The ideology of color-blind racism is perhaps the most effective and well-designed tool for keeping racism intact. The ideology of color-blind racism … [aims] to render racism invisible and to label those who claim to experience it as being overly sensitive, crazy."
Policing affects “trust in government beyond the policy’s target population”: “U.S.-born and immigrant Latinos who live in counties where immigrant policing … is the most intense are less likely to trust health information from government agencies."
“The police leader in England and Wales is undeniably a White man, with only 24% women and 4% BME in leadership positions.” & “BME officers are subject to a range of exclusionary practices that result in their isolation and discrimination with in the police service."
“The disproportionate use of stop and search is not only born out of, but also perpetuates, a paranoid … suspicion toward an entire community. The ingrained image … feeds into the collective illusion that black men everywhere need to be policed more than others."
“If a racially biased police force were to fit a new forecasting model to predict from last week’s drug arrests… this would create a feedback loop… Racial bias is now encoded into a prediction model… reinforcing the original disproportionate allocation of… police."
“Minority communities may provide officers an implicit visual heuristic that they can expect to encounter dangerous and uncooperative residents… Officers may be implicitly interpreting Black neighborhoods as inherently dangerous and uncooperative."
Poor and Black people “without these types of police-initiated and unjust encounters” are at least as likely “to report their personal victimizations” as White people; however, police contact has “a stronger inhibitory effect on reporting for Blacks relative to Whites."
“Racial disparities continue to exist when those [other] factors are controlled for. In particular, Black and Hispanic drivers in Vermont are substantially more likely to be searched than White or Asian drivers, and are less likely to be found with contraband."
White people are more than twice as likely to support the use of military equipment for riot control as Black people “likely due to disproportionate usage of militarized police for riot control purposes in Black neighborhoods and against Black protestors."
“Greater support for lowering the age of criminal responsibility was found when the teenage offender was black… Greater tolerance for police violence was observed when it was a crime of robbery committed by a black teenager."
Many videos “contradict official claims… call[ing] into question the trope of police officers as guardian-warriors maintaining the ‘thin blue line’ between a vulnerable public and dangerous predators. Without video… [the] public may assume [victims]… are criminals."
“9.5% of black respondents reported exposure to physical police violence compared with 2.7% of white respondents” & Authors find “elevated odds for psychological distress, suicidal behavior, and psychotic experiences among individuals recently exposed to police violence."
“Studies of [police] promotion show people of color are promoted more slowly than whites, preserving hierarchal race relations.” & “Racial profiling, unequal enforcement of the law, and discriminatory treatment is part of the structure of policing."
“Black women also reported higher prevalence of physical and psychological police victimization… compared. to non-Latina White women.” & “Black and Latina women and economically disadvantaged women, may be at higher risk for police violence exposures.” (@bbackes321)
“Creation of Blue Lives Matter has helped facilitate overwhelming public support for the police subculture’s perceived ‘war against cops’ and the entitlement to violence that accompanies their need for survival.” & “Their official website…is devoted to discrediting [BLM]"
“Results show that expansions in percentage of blacks in states in the Northeastern United States lead to growth in state police strength.” & “It seems likely that… police… in the Northeast continue to … suppress[]… politically or economically threatening [groups]."
“The findings of these studies reinforce what many racialized minorities [in Canada] have long suspected in cities across the country: the exercise of police discretionary power produces differential, racialized treatment."
“Most [police officers in] our sample believed that there has been a war on cops in recent years” & “Although recent analyses suggest that widespread increases in violent crime or assaults on police officers have not occurred to date."
“Latinos who reported that ‘people like me’ are more likely to be stopped by police, arrested, or sent to prison were more likely than their counterparts to report poor self-rated physical health."
“By blaming… victims for their own fatal police shootings… we can rest assured that this shooting—and that shooting, and the next, and the next again, and so on—was because of this one bad actor… It lets us off the hook of confronting individual… racism."
"[Brazilian police in simulators] shot at black targets faster than at whites when they were armed, and had more difficulty (were slower) not to shoot blacks than whites when they were unarmed." & “There were no effects of the [police] participants' color."
“None of the Black males or females… were arrested as a result of their police contact, suggesting that… streets stops involving police use of force are not limited to Black residents engaged in criminal activity and… force used by police officers may be unnecessary."
“Race/ethnicity and gender shaped the encounters between … low-income youth and police … Black and Latina young women experienced a higher frequency of negative encounters … and a lack of law enforcement response when they were under threat."
“Negative stereotypes about Blacks being lazy and perceptions about police’s excessive use of force whenever they encounter Blacks predicted 27% of the variation in stated vote preferences” between Trump and Clinton.
“Identification of those suspected to be ‘foreign’ was largely based on…appearance—namely skin color…and language/accent… It was common for a person’s darker skin colour to prompt questions about… nationality… despite…insistence that they were British citizens."
“This cooperation between ICE and local law enforcement is a critical component of racial and gendered disparities in deportation trends… Police officers are more likely to stop and arrest black and Latino men, which in turn leads to higher deportation rates."
The simulation results “demonstrate that even if police sent to a neighborhood discover crime incidents according to the true crime rate, the … model will converge to only sending police to the neighborhood with the most crime” & “Runaway feedback in predictive policing."
“Officers also showed a prior bias to shoot Black men when no dispatch information was provided…Although most officers showed some anti-Black prior bias, certain officers showed up to four times as much bias as the group average."
“Black but not white men reporting personal or vicarious UTBP [unfair treatment by police] had shorter telomeres than men not reporting UTBP … [which] may contribute to racial disparities in health and mortality more broadly."
“Data-driven policing thereby facilitates racialized criminalization through a feedback loop of arrests, tickets, data-entry, data-analysis, and patrol deployments… Differential production of crime data…reinforces… disproportionate patrolling of racialized minorities."
“For Black/African American participants… the more FNE [social anxiety] a participant endorsed, the less safe he or she reported feeling in the presence of police.” & “That individual, even if innocent of any criminal behavior, may be…prone to exhibit anxious behaviors."
“We showed… tall White men may benefit from increased perceptions of competence, tall Black men are burdened with increased perceptions of threat… NYPD police officers stopped tall Black men at a disproportionately high rate."
“Racial residential segregation was the most robust indicator associated with state-level racial disparities in police shootings of unarmed victims… controlling for both the overall rate of Black police shootings and Black arrest rates."
At UK airports “Black Canadians were eight times as likely to be stopped, black South Africans ten times as likely and black Americans more than twice as likely by comparison with their white counterparts… Immigration officers have wide discretion."
“We find that the implicit racial biases of White residents predict disproportionate regional use of lethal force with Blacks by police. This association is robust, reliably emerging across two conceptually distinct measures of racial bias."
“Getting cover… [is] the appearance of intimacy with young women—for communicating innocence to onlooking officers. If lesbian and gay youth hope to avoid police scrutiny, they must…conform to the standards of heterosexual romance…regulation over gender and sexuality."
Regarding causes of right wing extremism in Canada, “the majority of key informants in our study claimed that the most obvious factor was a weak law enforcement response… Law enforcement were neither well trained nor motivated to confront the movement."
“The police… save white communities from the evils of inner-city crime… They are the heroes who keep Compton in Compton and Chicago in Chicago… This is not something that all white Americans explicitly think or say, but it is the overwhelming narrative of our culture."
"[Bias] training may actually normalize stereotyping by promoting the notion that implicit bias is common and expected, thereby decreasing trainees' guilt and motivation to overcome it. … This possibility could have catastrophic implications for law enforcement."
“Black victims were less likely than white and Hispanic/Latino victims to have received any given service. Among those who were unaware of services, black victims were much more likely to be interested."
“Confronting our complicity in perpetuating racism is much more difficult than simply acknowledging our implicit bias…sacrificing true progress on the altar of smug self-congratulation…. Condemn tiki-torch Nazis but…fail to take on…substantive programs for…justice”
“The contemporary constitutional law framework for police violence [‘framing it as a series of…individual disputes’] is part of the web of law … that enables police violence to remain an ingrained … form of structural harm that communities of color are subjected to."
“Though body-worn cameras may go some way to curbing racial bias in policing, they are almost certainly not the panacea that some people initially hoped they would be… What is needed is change in recruiting, organizational culture, training, and accountability mechanisms."
“Black middle and high school students are over three times more likely [than white students] to attend a school with more security staff than mental health personnel."
“Race is not a causal factor for [middle school] disciplinary findings… Reporting racial statistics, in isolation without proper context, is misleading and reinforces a perspective that may… lead to over-policing schools with high numbers of Black… students."
“African-Americans… are also disproportionately subject to the types of white-collar crime that target the poor and disadvantaged… Some of these are the most serious forms of white-collar crime, including environmental offenses and workplace safety regulations."
“At present, however, the perceptions captured by survey data indicate that policing in the USA does protect and serve white communities, while often oppressing minority communities."
“We can document very clearly the extent and nature of those [law enforcement] racial disparities that do exist. These are substantial, growing, and unjustified by the crime-fighting value of the policies that lead to them."
“Relevant research … debunks the correlation of crime rates and excessive use of force tactics against people of color.” & “No correlation between the level of violent crime in a city and that city’s rate of fatal police shootings."
“Between 2013 and 2017, a Black person in Toronto was nearly 20 times more likely than a White person to be involved in a fatal shooting by the Toronto Police Service (TPS).” & “The more serious the police conduct and lethal the outcome, the greater the over-representation."
“When officers received less sleep preceding each test session, they were significantly more likely to associate Black Americans with weapons compared with when they had received more sleep. In other words, sleep restriction appeared to increase anti-Black bias."
“Racial disparities are found at virtually every point of criminal justice processing… Implicit racial bias can manifest itself not only in the discretionary decision making of criminal justice system actors… but also in otherwise well-intentioned crime control laws."
“These racial disparities resulted in approximately 61,000 more cases of police force against Black civilians … than would have occurred if Black civilians were treated identically to Whites, greater than the total number of Whites who were subjected to force."
“My study overcomes selection concerns by examining police officer behavior in automobile crash investigations… Officers issue significantly more citations to other-race drivers … the findings serve as decisive evidence of systematic racial bias by police officers."
“The racial disparity that exists in prison sentencing is, for the most part, already in place at arrest. Therefore, research on the disproportionately high minority representation in prison should focus on understanding arrest practices by law enforcement."
“The Chicago case illustrates that predictive crime mapping does not incur more precise applications of police force but rather legitimizes the widespread criminalization of racialized districts."
“Each additional police killing of an unarmed black American was associated with 0.14 additional poor mental health days among black American respondents… Mental health impacts were not observed among white respondents."
“Militarized police units are more often deployed in areas with high concentrations of African Americans, even after adjusting for local crime rates and other community traits. But I find no firm evidence that SWAT teams lower an agency’s violent crime rate."
“Minority group threat can, in part, account for police acquisition of military equipment… The value of militarized property received is consistent with social control responses in which overwhelming force is used toward both Black and Hispanic minority populations."
A critique of Fryer: “If even a small subset of police have propensities to more frequently encounter black relative to white individuals, then analyses of pooled encounter-conditional data will fail to detect systemic anti-black racial disparities."
“Police homicide risk is higher than suggested by official data. Black and Latino men are at higher risk for death than are White men, and these disparities vary markedly across place."
“Our analyses indicate that the [Tampa] PD’s bicycle enforcement did not produce a community benefit in terms of crime reduction but did burden individual bicyclists, particularly Black bicyclists."
“Indeed, we found that when Whites were exposed to a ‘Blacker’ prison population, they became significantly more fearful of crime, which, in turn, increased their support of punitive crime policies."