2019 | Police Research

924/

“We find that stopped black and Hispanic pedestrians had about twice the odds of being frisked than white pedestrians who were equally likely to be carrying a weapon… Further, the risk-adjusted disparities are in fact greater than the raw disparities in frisk rates, a finding consistent with the fact that stopped whites are, on average, more likely to be carrying a weapon than stopped minorities."

877/

“Frequent reports and visualization of incidents of police violence directed toward black, Latino, and Native American communities may also have negative health consequences… Each police killing of an unarmed black male American worsened mental health among blacks."

“The relationship, both real and imagined, between rap music and the drug trade [in Puerto Rico] served as a justification for the policing of low-income and Black youth and did so through the same logics of contagion and practices of containment.” - @marisollebron

654/

“Police killings of unarmed Blacks and unarmed Hispanics have a significant, positive effect on Black homicide changes.” & “The actual killings of unarmed civilians … and not just the public’s protest against them, drive the effect [of increased homicides]."

651/

“Clearance rates are significantly lower in counties that contain greater proportions of Black residents… Controlling both crime conditions and criminal justice contexts explains virtually none of the relationship between county Black population and case clearance."

648/

“The results of our analysis provide little support for the de-policing explanation of the rise in [2015] homicide levels.” & “The arrest rates for minor and property offenses are negatively associated with the homicide rate but only for Whites."

644/

“The practice of summoning the police on Black persons engaged in everyday activities… is by no means new.” & “The practice… serves to maintain racial segregation, inflicts a number of intangible injuries, and exposes Blacks to physical and psychological harm."

638/

“Certain crimes like loitering or riding a bicycle on the sidewalk are far more likely to be enforced in poor black neighborhoods than in affluent white ones… Often, it is the very same residents who report feeling both underprotected and overpoliced."

637/

“The majority of white officers reported the deaths of black citizens during police encounters were isolated incidents; less than half of black officers offered the same assessment.” Also, 92% of white officers “felt the country had made necessary changes” toward equality.

636/

“Studies on the criminalization of black girls and the school-to-prison pipeline document how they experience more severe penalties and punishments than white girls and are subject to sexual harassment from school resource officers and police officers."

632/

“Individuals are less supportive of police drones in Caucasian neighborhoods than in African-American neighborhoods.” & “Participants had significantly different support for police UAS usage dependent on the ra- cial composition of the neighborhood.” (@emilyanania)

621/

“The higher the % of Black residents in a city, the higher the % of the municipal budget derived from court fines and fees. In… majority-White cities… Black motorists make up a significant number of traffic stops… [and] are still policed for revenue."

620/

“Drug arrests increase in counties where local governments are running deficits… in states that allow police departments to retain seizure revenues… Increases, however, are observed only for drug arrests of blacks and Hispanics; drug arrests of whites remain unchanged."

586/

“African American youth and families are negatively characterized or labeled by workers in the child welfare system… these labels… ultimately negatively affect the course of their case… the majority of the youth whose behavior was criminalized were African American."

“Gang membership is often portrayed… as strictly a minority issue… There are large discrepancies between these figures and… surveys. These four groups [White, Hispanic, Black, and other] are about equally represented in self-report samples [of gang membership]."

529/

“Based on data collected from various jurisdictions, the vast majority of studies have confirmed that race/ethnicity matters in traffic stops, with Blacks being significantly more likely than Whites to be stopped."

522/

“African Americans were more likely to experience a traffic stop than either white or Hispanic drivers… African American drivers and Hispanic drivers were more likely to be searched… African Americans were 3 times more likely to experience police use of force."

520/

“Existing best practices such as hot spot policing are…a crude algorithmic remediation of patrol geographies that facilitate the over-policing of poor and minority communities and expose them to police abuses…a blunt preventive instrument that allows for biased patrols."

518/

“All groups experienced violent repressive policing through direct or indirect encounters.” & “The vast majority of revolutionary activists… vowed to engage in future activism efforts even after experiencing high levels of aggressive police action."

514/

“U.S. media outlets and their journalists' tweets adopted delegitimizing frames of protesters significantly more than the U.K., Spain, or France.” & “Media outlets and journalists in the UK and Spain addressed race/racism twice as often as those from the U.S."

512/

“Both crack-cocaine and methamphetamine use are criminalized… In the … case of opioid misuse, political and media campaigns often disseminate messages that, in spite of their conventional lifestyles, White, middle-class persons have fallen prey to addictive substances."

509/

“The models consistently demonstrated that more educated [BA] and White [Texas police] chiefs identified the maintenance of law and order as more important, whereas less educated and non-White chiefs emphasized the maintenance of relationships and adoption of innovations."

508/

“Black Londoners were 2.5 times more likely to be searched than whites. This disparity was even greater for drug searches… The overall search success…rates were 0.7 p.p. lower for black persons…consistent with preference-based or inaccurate statistical discrimination."

507/

“Higher levels of everyday discrimination were associated with shorter telomeres [marker of premature morbidity] among women who reported that they kept experiences of racism to themselves. There was no association among women who discussed their experiences…with others."

“Between 900 and 1,000 people are killed each year by on-duty police across the United States, but relatively few officers are criminally charged.” When charged, the conviction rate is low, even though a majority (69%) of those charged killed unarmed suspects.

502/

“Even though there was no racial disparity in the change in recovery rates, the increase in stops of nonwhites implies that the burden of this policy shift occurred primarily for blacks and Hispanics in impact-zone areas” where the NYPD increased “stop and frisk” policing.

501/

“We observed no impact on changes in racial disparities of use-of-force incidents in the three sites that provided data on that outcome. Finally, changes in racial disparities associated with pedestrian stops, traffic stops, and arrests are site-and outcome-specific."

499/

“We exploit quasirandom variation in supervisor assignment and find that white supervisors are less likely to nominate black officers [for an award] than white… officers… control[ling] for officer characteristics, including experience, arrest record, and misconduct."

498/

For urban teens “direct police contact (arrests and stops that do not result in arrest) are associated with reductions in GPA. Second, we find that experiencing vicarious police contact is also associated with reductions in GPA."

497/

“In the current political climate…ethnic and racial groups are prevented from using recreation resources by overt racism…law enforcement being called on youth of color recreating in pools… African American couples barbecuing in parks or Latinos speaking Spanish."

495/

“In three recent surveys of forensic evaluators [who render reports for judges used for, e.g., criminal responsibility and sentencing decisions], 91–95% of respondents were White."

491/

Though the police often view police militarization favorably…there is little support for the idea that militarization improves policework… At the same time, ecological studies find that factors like racial demographics… influence some militarizing behaviors from LEAs."

489/

“Analysis of 911 calls in a major metropolitan area reveals that black people are less likely to dial 911 immediately following the highly publicized assault or death of a black person at the hands of police."

488/

“Officers who exhibited high levels of occupational stress reported stress as a consequence of ethnic or racial bias. Moreover, officers reported considerable time and energy was spent helping co-workers deal with this prejudice and bias."

487/

“Black people were more strongly associated with weapons, even if violent crime rates were higher for White people than Black people. Thus, the stereotype that Black people are violent reflects more than just an awareness of differential crime rates among Whites and Blacks."

486/

“Simply frequenting an area where gangs are known to assemble has landed individuals in a gang database.” & “NYPD officials have acknowledged that as many as 95 percent of the people in its gang database are Black or Latinx.

485/

“The us-versus-them orientation of this policing paradigm manifests in decidedly punitive approaches… Such aggressive policing converges on minority communities already distrustful of police."

481/

“Police officers in the United States killed at least 104 unarmed Black people in 2015… Moreover, unarmed Black people were killed at five times the rate of unarmed Whites in 2015."

477/

“Police officers are not the only ones who derive pleasure from racial domination” & “Whenever Whites have felt too socially or economically close to Blacks, they have lashed out… Trump connects with the White masses by offering them emotional appeasement."

474/

“Findings of this research are…deeply morally disturbing… Victims of sexual violence, controlling for whether the assailant is a stranger and whether the attack is a rape, are most influenced in their reporting by the color of the body that attacked them."

471/

“The FBI ‘detailed the threat’ of white supremacist groups infiltrating police departments….cautioned that…it would be a significant threat to national security… Despite these warnings, police departments do not have plans in place to out these types of officers."

469/

“While the trends in the total-number of capital-eligible homicides show slight differences for Black and White victim events, the clearance rates are dramatically different. … White victim homicides are more likely to be cleared by arrest."

468/

“People who attribute the cause of racial disparities to blacks committing more violations … engage in motivated reasoning.” & “Only a predictable subset of the population is responsive to information about racial disparities in the criminal justice system."

467/

“Operation Impact…quickly increased the number of police officers in specific high-crime areas designated as ‘impact zones’” Found significant negative impact of these policies on standardized test scores of black youth in affected areas.

466/

“Civil asset forfeiture was originally proposed to halt large criminal enterprises… but… disproportionately affected poor communities and communities of color and focuses too often on … low-level offenses—such as a $60 marijuana sale or a minor traffic infraction."

465/

“Racist blue humor plays a role in rendering non-white officers more ‘blue’ than Black, Latino/a, Asian American, and so on…non-white police endure, and appear to adapt to…dominant police cultural norms… as officers of color either assimilate, or are rendered targets."

455/

“Research suggests that Black males are often perceived not only as older but more physically threatening…heavier, taller… regardless of their actual height, weight, and musculature. These perceptions then led to justification for more aggressive measures by police."

451/

“Through our study findings, we can paint a clear picture of the declines in dangerousness [of policing]… We can also provide an important historical context for the… perceived ‘war on cops’ in recent years, and our…findings reveal no evidence to support those claims."

450/

“Officers…with a greater proportion of colleagues previously named in use of force complaints were more likely to be named in subsequent… complaints.” & “Must move beyond a focus on individual officers… [toward] deviant police networks."

“We need not sit around and wait for proof of racial discrimination per se to draw conclusions about how police power is racialized. The fact that police–civilian encounters can be routinely and predictably disproportionate, racially, should be noteworthy, end of story."

442/

“Black lives are systematically undervalued even when governments do compensate victims of police violence… Courts use race-based actuarial tables to calculate… lower damages valuations for Black lives since the tables estimate that they will live shorter lives."

430/

“Arrest-driven aggressive order maintenance strategies directly affect people of color. Greater race, class, and gender inequality was associated with higher order maintenance arrest rates of Black residents even after … crime rates, and other … factors were controlled."

428/

“Black drug arrests are likelier in predominantly White … neighborhoods. Unlike their White counterparts, … Black drug offenders [don’t] travel to White neighborhoods to engage in drug offending… Officers' raised suspicion of Blacks in White areas…"

422/

“Journalists' tweeting generally sided with police… When they themselves were subject to police action, tweets from the journalists took a more sympathetic turn; breathing the same tear gas seemingly inspired greater sympathy for the protesters and their cause."

420/

“Asserting one’s rights and symbolic resistance were uncommon strategies for both [Black] male and female respondents. This finding is expected given what we know about ‘the talk’—a set of instructions traditionally passed down from black parent to child."

419/

“Unlike arrests for Whites, officers reported a larger and varied set of factors that motivated their contacts and eventual arrests of Blacks.” & “They invoked case law to justify these stops and surveillance on a lower legal basis than that for Whites."

418/

“This project brought 24 young Black men and 14 police officers together for a three-week… intervention.” & “Data failed to capture any significant perception change … by the officers… average ‘neutral’ response when asked about their trust towards young Black men."

417/

“When school districts expand resources for school police, minority students are disciplined more intensively.” & “Relative to White students, Black and Hispanic students are less likely to graduate high school and enroll in college” as a result of school police funding.

[Brazil] “Controlling for all the considered individual level characteristics, verbal and physical victimization probability is statistically … higher for darker skin tone individuals… This pattern confirms … discrimination in the use of police force."

413/

“Our findings indicated a consistent and statistically significant phenomenon that privileges light-skinned adolescents in their encounters with the police. Light-skinned teens were significantly less likely to be stopped by the police than other teens."

412/

“Using a sample of 12,376 sworn law enforcement officers in 98 agencies… Officers perceiving [low public support of police] … become much more distrustful of the public, and are more likely to justify the use of coercive tactics in the course of police work."

411/

* Frivolous race-based police calls “are particularly dangerous for Black people because they are rooted in private acts of force that are given legitimacy by law when White citizens enlist the police to enforce racial boundaries."*

410/

Contact with police is a key vector through which children…come under the scrutiny of child welfare systems" & “Disparities originating in criminal justice may drift across organizational boundaries to reinforce the deep racial inequalities…of American child protection."

409/

“Vicarious police contact among blacks and personal contact among Hispanics both shared a stronger inverse association with self-reported health than among whites. … Police contact is more strongly linked to worse self-reported health among nonwhites."

408/

“We find that racial prejudice has a positive effect on the beliefs that police violence is justified. Finally, we find that among white respondents with higher levels of racial prejudice, police violence against black citizens is perceived as more justified."

407/

“The [DOJ] reports demonstrate that officers frequently subjected [African Americans] to verbal abuse… Investigators found that officers' use of racially-charged language and crude jokes created a culture where blacks were dehumanized."

406/

“This string of constitutional precedent … expand[s] the concept of ‘driving while black’ to include ‘parking while black’ … the effect of it being next to impossible to limit seizures based on racial profiling justified by reasonable suspicion of a parking violation."

405/

“Young [Black] men… made frequent reference to officers' inability to apprehend…assailants… Study participants also ascribed the small probability that suspects would be arrested to their prevailing view that police did not care about making communities of color safe."

Criminalizing black youth by outlawing music genres popular with Black youth in Britain.

401/

In a review of 75 police departments' use-of-force guidelines, finds: - 51% mention mental health; - 31% require exhaustion of non-force alternatives; - 27% require intervening in excessive use of force; - 17% require force to be proportional to threat; - 12% mention bias

399/

“Our results suggest that transfers of military equipment to police departments has a fragmenting effect on civic engagement. Black households reduce charitable giving. The relative impact of police militarization is consistently worse for black households."

396/

“These results raise the possibility of a particularly vicious cycle … it is easy to imagine how an erosion in public trust could lead to increased unreasonable force, further eroding public trust."

395/

“Vicarious experiences clearly play an important role among African Nova Scotian women: despite rarely having confrontations with the police… awareness of the negative experiences faced by the Black men and boys in their lives shaped how participants perceived the police."

394/

“Controlling for the severity of the offense… law enforcement is significantly less likely to take a report and significantly less likely to make an arrest when the crime is hate motivated.” & “Police response to hate crime…[is] very differently from non-hate… crimes."

393/

12% of local police officers are black; 4% of local police chiefs are black; 12% of local police officers are female; 3% of local police chiefs are female

392/

“State self-defense laws provide a legal mechanism through which residents of a neighborhood can…intimidate, punish…effectively allowing residents of White neighborhoods to police people who stand out…because of their race and ensuring that [they] never fully belong."

390/

“Overall, it is clear that the ostensible aim of technologies to quell uneven practices such as racial profiling, can end up misaligning with those stated aims or being directly inimical to them; instead further racializing vulnerable groups under the cloak of impartiality."

387/

“Being older and more conservative correspond with more support for police militarization, whereas being Black reduces support for militarization.” & “Opposition to militarization…cannot…be reduced to anti-police mentalities… They are largely a function of legitimacy."

386/

“Unraveling how and why racialized crime management became a political priority alongside urban crisis and changing residential property regimes is essential for theorizing contemporary crises in policing."

385/

“White individuals…tend to view criticism of police…as threats to their…dominant status.” & “White youth who identified as Republican consistently reported more positive perceptions of law enforcement than [those] who identify as Democratic."

384/

“Algorithms are capable of racism.” & “Machine learning endows an algorithm with the ability to learn, mimic, and refine patterns that exist in the real world. In … policing, machine learning allows an algorithm to associate race and criminality, and thereby discriminate."

383/

“The two studies provide[] compelling evidence that blacks in highly segregated cities experience greater exposure to police violence… Large cities are divided into ‘free-fire zones’ where police violence is prevalent and acceptable, and ‘sleepy hollows’ where it is not."

381/

“US policing as liberal pacification” –> “US policing in particular ends up maintaining and reinforcing substantive intersecting racial and class divisions, precisely because of its avowed formal neutrality."

379/

“Media outlets tend to focus on the victimization of White women.” & “There were fewer stories about Latina/Black female victims… and the narrative content tended to be unsympathetic (e.g., bad person, risk-taker/complicit, bad environment)."

377/

“Among Black victims, the probability of reporting crime declines as their perceptions that the police are ineffective increases. Additionally, … perceived police ineffectiveness is more pronounced among Blacks, resulting in a reluctance to seek police intervention."

375/

“If [policing] data … was collected and produced in a racially biased fashion, then the predictions that are generated by the algorithm will reflect these biases.” & “Predictive policing depends on a closed, racialized past and produces a closed, racialized future."

374/

“I find that low-level policing in suburbs diminished between 1990 and 2014, but such policing was more common and more racially disproportionate there than in cities by the end of the study period."

373/

“60 percent [of black adults] reported that they or a family member have been unfairly stopped or treated by the police because they are black… 31 percent reported that they have avoided calling the police because of concerns of discrimination."

369/

“Police data generated by the unlawful or biased practices and policies of a specific police department or division can corrupt practices and data in other jurisdictions … [who] incorporate such data into their own predictive policing systems."

368/

“We present the first causal evidence suggesting that [broken-windows policing], which emphasizes extensive police contact at low levels of suspicious behavior, can lower the educational performance of African American boys, with implications for … racial inequality."

367/

“In many … shootings, police officers did not know who they were encountering or know their criminal background… After deadly force encounters involving black people, the media consistently called into question the criminal histories placing blame solely on the victim."

366/

“There are significant potential psychological and emotional effects that may be experienced and felt by Black men in the United States who have seen, heard or read about by police induced trauma…72%… worried about being fatally shot by law enforcement on a daily basis."

362/

“Despite stereotypes to the contrary—black mixed-race men do not experience any privilege on the basis of their proximity to whiteness and extended white sociality, in the context of police contact."

361/

"[We] examine the effects of a lethal force incident on … assessments of police… The police shooting and [its] handling civil unrest… resulted in no major initial shifts in attitude by non-Black residents… African Americans felt considerably more distrustful."

359/

“Whites have long been overrepresented in … white-collar crime such as corporate crime, investment fraud, and securities fraud.” & “We have… a view of race as having a single impact on crime based on disadvantage, without examining… crime… [based on] advantage."

357/

“News coverage did not emphasize the peaceful [BLM protest] activities; instead, activities were most often covered when conflict occurred.” & “It is much harder for peaceful protests… to get any media attention… Media gave less space to the… agendas of protesters."

356/

“Poorly performing police were evaluated more positively when operating in a predominantly African American community than when… operating in a predominantly White community… It may be that participants expect less… from police… [in] African American communities."

355/

A ten-minute in-home “positive, non-enforcement police–public interaction” improves attitudes toward police, especially “among racial minorities and those who held the most negative views toward police at baseline. [This] underscores the power of positive contact."

353/

“A unique paradox for Black women [victims]: the fear of unjust harm to their partners through… [a] racially motivated police response and the simultaneous sense of futility in a justice system that may not sufficiently prioritize [Intimate partner and sexual violence]."

352/

“After controlling for available incident and officer characteristics… black and Latino complainants [of Chicago police misconduct] were 87 percent and 51 percent less likely, respectively, to see their allegations sustained… the disparity… widens in black… areas."

351/

“There is continuing large-scale resistance by elite and ordinary white Americans to contemporary black protest movements… Many commentators in the… mainstream media and in the white public have continued to delegitimize … #BLM protests."

347/

“When Black men challenged the police, it proved harmful for them, as they were often… jailed, or assaulted. Black women… challenging officers’ actions… were generally freed… Compliance toward the police led to favorable outcomes for men…and unfavorable for women."

344/

“Christian nationalist ideology influences Americans to draw sharper ethnic boundaries such that they are more likely to see black Americans as outsiders and deviants and therefore deserving of whatever treatment they receive from the police."

342/

“We found that the frequency of police stops [of black and Latino adolescents] predicted more frequent engagement in delinquent behavior 6, 12, and 18 mo later, whereas delinquent behavior did not predict subsequent reports of police stops."

341/

“Data being used in the predictive policing analysis is based on previous policing patterns… We know poor black and Latino communities are over-policed. Thus ‘predictive’ … policing will likely serve to further associate blackness with criminality."

337/

“School Police Officers represent a workforce seemingly underprepared to achieve the goals of their work but who also possess relatively high authority and discretion.” & “No support for the assumption that SPO presence deters negative behavior."

335/

“Many African Americans have ties to the police that would appear to be informal and friendly… living in an urban area with crime decreased the chances of knowing an officer. … [W]here the need for informal ties … is most pressing, they are least likely to exist."

333/

Finds that Black mothers, despite negative experiences with police, “felt obligated to present police as positive figures to prevent their sons from responding to police in negative ways."

328/

“Narratives of… students of color reveal that campus policing is an emerging issue… Without critical examination… [universities] will continue to reproduce a hostile environment based on law and order rather than safety and care."

315/

“Persons who identified as Black (or Black British) were over 3 times as likely to be arrested than those who identified themselves as White” and “In the year ending March 2019, those who identify as Black or Black British were 9.7 times as likely to be stopped."

309/

“Our analysis shows that the risk of being killed by police is jointly patterned by one’s race, gender, and age… Young men of color face exceptionally high risk of being killed by police. Inequalities in risk are pronounced throughout the life course."

299/

“Black [Canadian] youth are more likely to be charged and less likely to be cautioned than White youth. … Racial discrimination may play a role in how police select youth to be diverted from the formal court system for minor offenses in Canada."

292/

“What is self-evident is that the potential for racialised policing to become hardwired, codified and concealed within police and law enforcement technology tools is alarmingly high, increasing further the reality of racialised criminalisation."

290/

“There is a significant history in the United States of white people calling the police on innocent people of color… [One explanation is that] these individuals are… utilizing law enforcement as their own personal race police."

286/

“Tied to the oppressive nature of schools that over-police and and criminalize Black girls… During ages five to fourteen, Black girls are perceived by adults to be less innocent and more adult-like… and therefore increasingly experience unfair punishment."

285/

“Experience with community policing was positively associated with support for the practice… The second most consistent predictor of officer support… is officers' political ideology… More conservative officers were generally less supportive of community policing."

281/

“Predictive policing and actuarial justice tools—including algorithms that do not include race in their design—produce racially-disparate results that intensify policing of already over-policed communities.

“Throughout American history, police have gravitated to right-wing, law-and- order politicians and ethnocentric groups… The FOP [Fraternal Order of Police] has a racially fraught history.” & “[FOP] lodge density is associated with a… swing from Romney to Trump."

273/

“As with the All Lives Matter narrative, Blue Lives Matter sought to construct [BLM] as selfish and ungrateful for the protections police courageously provide them.” & “With few exceptions, these counter narratives framed those killed as at fault for their own deaths."

271/

When observing officer use of force, “Respondents who were exposed to a White defense eyewitness had a reduced odds of finding the defendant guilty of resisting arrest compared to respondents who were exposed to a Black eyewitness…"

258/

“Asian, Black, and Latino students in this sample reported feeling less safe with the police in their communities. This trend was particularly pronounced for Black students… The presence of police in school was less likely to make … Black students feel safer at school."

238/

More segregated cities see a much higher disparity in fatal police shootings, controlling for crime rates, income, city demographics, and other factors. A 1 s.d. increase in racial segregation increased “the ratio of Black to White fatal police shooting rates… by 44.4%"

236/

“The physical and psychological harm the young Black men in our study witnessed and directly experienced as a result of actual and potential police violence clearly fit within DSM-5 conceptualizations of trauma."

235/

“Similarities are presented throughout these cases of police violence… Police tried to justify their behavior by stating the victim looked suspicious. This suspicion the police refer to originates from stereotypes… created during the antebellum period to oppress Blacks."

“The results in the current study demonstrate law enforcement contact among Black fathers have detrimental outcomes in familial relationships with their child’s mother… Police stops have a deleterious impact on familial relationships."

195/

“We found no significant relationship between the racial identification of a suspect and … the likelihood that the suspect was caught… Our findings suggest that crime reports that include race can prime stereotypes linking Black people with crime."

189/

“Tabloid newspapers are notorious for stereotyping crime as a disproportionately African American problem.” & “It influences anyone who comes into contact with the screaming headlines and often provocative images, including law enforcement."

153/

We “should require white Americans to consider the consequences of summoning armed agents of the state to investigate black Americans, to think twice before making the phone call, and to assume the consequences of liability for weaponizing racial fear for frivolous reasons."

152/

“This research qualitatively examines experiences with the police for 42 interracial mixed-status couples” and “The liability of a husband’s brownness transformed white citizen wives from seeing the police as helpers to harmers."

151/

“Self-report surveys have indicated that hostility, violence, and criminality are commonly associated with Black Americans, even by egalitarian-minded White Americans.” and “Officers were more likely to incorrectly choose a Black target with more stereotypical features."

149/

“Contrary to our expectation, police stops involving black suspects are more likely to result in frisk, search, use of force and arrest in tracts with higher levels of black-white segregation."

119/

“At some point, the disparities become self-fulfilling as the increased rates of incarceration of minority people will result in increased offending … with disparities in imprisonment becoming a function of disparities in offending."

109/

“By comparing the punishments given to black and white… students who fight one another… We find that black and poor students are, in fact, punished more harshly than the students with whom they fight."

108/

A one-tweet break from the thread. This one is for white allies and our need to confront implicit biases. Must read.

105/

“As you think about the politics of police abolitionism, remember: Black America vs White America do not experience the same police."

100/

“Over 70% of black and brown boys in our sample reported being hassled by police in the last 3 months."

69/

“Using street stops [as the denominator], black citizens were approximately 2.5 times as likely to be fatally shot in 2015 and 2016, and about 2.4 times as likely to be fatally shot in 2017."

55/

“After we found hundreds of police officers in racist and extremist groups on Facebook, we tried to get the worst offenders’ disciplinary records from police departments."

43/

Whether police label an area as “high crime” has more to do with its racial composition than its crime rate.

42/

"[W]hile we do not find evidence of racial discrimination in the application of enhancements, they do act to pronounce the already large disparities in sentencing."

18/

Repeated unjustified encounters with police “correlates with dimmer views of law enforcement and [may lead to] … police avoidance, or help-seeking behavior in the context of criminal victimization."

153 entries found for 2019

“The relative intensity or idleness of policing-related news coverage correlates with the ebbs and flows of attentiveness state lawmakers devote to the issue."

“Frequent reports and visualization of incidents of police violence directed toward black, Latino, and Native American communities may also have negative health consequences… Each police killing of an unarmed black male American worsened mental health among blacks."

“The criminal justice system, we argue, slipped from one in which arrest was low and strongly linked to offending to one where a substantial share of Americans experienced arrest without committing a crime.” & “Furthermore, this decoupling became racially inflected."

“The relationship, both real and imagined, between rap music and the drug trade [in Puerto Rico] served as a justification for the policing of low-income and Black youth and did so through the same logics of contagion and practices of containment.” - @marisollebron

“Police killings of unarmed Blacks and unarmed Hispanics have a significant, positive effect on Black homicide changes.” & “The actual killings of unarmed civilians … and not just the public’s protest against them, drive the effect [of increased homicides]."

“Clearance rates are significantly lower in counties that contain greater proportions of Black residents… Controlling both crime conditions and criminal justice contexts explains virtually none of the relationship between county Black population and case clearance."

“The results of our analysis provide little support for the de-policing explanation of the rise in [2015] homicide levels.” & “The arrest rates for minor and property offenses are negatively associated with the homicide rate but only for Whites."

“The practice of summoning the police on Black persons engaged in everyday activities… is by no means new.” & “The practice… serves to maintain racial segregation, inflicts a number of intangible injuries, and exposes Blacks to physical and psychological harm."

“Certain crimes like loitering or riding a bicycle on the sidewalk are far more likely to be enforced in poor black neighborhoods than in affluent white ones… Often, it is the very same residents who report feeling both underprotected and overpoliced."

“The majority of white officers reported the deaths of black citizens during police encounters were isolated incidents; less than half of black officers offered the same assessment.” Also, 92% of white officers “felt the country had made necessary changes” toward equality.

“Studies on the criminalization of black girls and the school-to-prison pipeline document how they experience more severe penalties and punishments than white girls and are subject to sexual harassment from school resource officers and police officers."

“Individuals are less supportive of police drones in Caucasian neighborhoods than in African-American neighborhoods.” & “Participants had significantly different support for police UAS usage dependent on the ra- cial composition of the neighborhood.” (@emilyanania)

“The higher the % of Black residents in a city, the higher the % of the municipal budget derived from court fines and fees. In… majority-White cities… Black motorists make up a significant number of traffic stops… [and] are still policed for revenue."

“Drug arrests increase in counties where local governments are running deficits… in states that allow police departments to retain seizure revenues… Increases, however, are observed only for drug arrests of blacks and Hispanics; drug arrests of whites remain unchanged."

“African American youth and families are negatively characterized or labeled by workers in the child welfare system… these labels… ultimately negatively affect the course of their case… the majority of the youth whose behavior was criminalized were African American."

“Non-white officers were less depressed” & “Minority officers reported less burnout… [and] were less likely to report being angry” & “Where [race] related to a… negative affective response to stress, minority officers reported less of the emotion than their white peers."

“Gang membership is often portrayed… as strictly a minority issue… There are large discrepancies between these figures and… surveys. These four groups [White, Hispanic, Black, and other] are about equally represented in self-report samples [of gang membership]."

“Based on data collected from various jurisdictions, the vast majority of studies have confirmed that race/ethnicity matters in traffic stops, with Blacks being significantly more likely than Whites to be stopped."

“African Americans were more likely to experience a traffic stop than either white or Hispanic drivers… African American drivers and Hispanic drivers were more likely to be searched… African Americans were 3 times more likely to experience police use of force."

“Existing best practices such as hot spot policing are…a crude algorithmic remediation of patrol geographies that facilitate the over-policing of poor and minority communities and expose them to police abuses…a blunt preventive instrument that allows for biased patrols."

“All groups experienced violent repressive policing through direct or indirect encounters.” & “The vast majority of revolutionary activists… vowed to engage in future activism efforts even after experiencing high levels of aggressive police action."

“U.S. media outlets and their journalists' tweets adopted delegitimizing frames of protesters significantly more than the U.K., Spain, or France.” & “Media outlets and journalists in the UK and Spain addressed race/racism twice as often as those from the U.S."

“Both crack-cocaine and methamphetamine use are criminalized… In the … case of opioid misuse, political and media campaigns often disseminate messages that, in spite of their conventional lifestyles, White, middle-class persons have fallen prey to addictive substances."

“The models consistently demonstrated that more educated [BA] and White [Texas police] chiefs identified the maintenance of law and order as more important, whereas less educated and non-White chiefs emphasized the maintenance of relationships and adoption of innovations."

“Black Londoners were 2.5 times more likely to be searched than whites. This disparity was even greater for drug searches… The overall search success…rates were 0.7 p.p. lower for black persons…consistent with preference-based or inaccurate statistical discrimination."

“Higher levels of everyday discrimination were associated with shorter telomeres [marker of premature morbidity] among women who reported that they kept experiences of racism to themselves. There was no association among women who discussed their experiences…with others."

"[British] Black and minority ethnic officers report finding it more difficult to be promoted or to join specialisms, to have claims of discrimination taken seriously, and to fit into police social circles."

“Between 900 and 1,000 people are killed each year by on-duty police across the United States, but relatively few officers are criminally charged.” When charged, the conviction rate is low, even though a majority (69%) of those charged killed unarmed suspects.

“Even though there was no racial disparity in the change in recovery rates, the increase in stops of nonwhites implies that the burden of this policy shift occurred primarily for blacks and Hispanics in impact-zone areas” where the NYPD increased “stop and frisk” policing.

“We observed no impact on changes in racial disparities of use-of-force incidents in the three sites that provided data on that outcome. Finally, changes in racial disparities associated with pedestrian stops, traffic stops, and arrests are site-and outcome-specific."

“We exploit quasirandom variation in supervisor assignment and find that white supervisors are less likely to nominate black officers [for an award] than white… officers… control[ling] for officer characteristics, including experience, arrest record, and misconduct."

For urban teens “direct police contact (arrests and stops that do not result in arrest) are associated with reductions in GPA. Second, we find that experiencing vicarious police contact is also associated with reductions in GPA."

“In the current political climate…ethnic and racial groups are prevented from using recreation resources by overt racism…law enforcement being called on youth of color recreating in pools… African American couples barbecuing in parks or Latinos speaking Spanish."

“In three recent surveys of forensic evaluators [who render reports for judges used for, e.g., criminal responsibility and sentencing decisions], 91–95% of respondents were White."

Though the police often view police militarization favorably…there is little support for the idea that militarization improves policework… At the same time, ecological studies find that factors like racial demographics… influence some militarizing behaviors from LEAs."

“Analysis of 911 calls in a major metropolitan area reveals that black people are less likely to dial 911 immediately following the highly publicized assault or death of a black person at the hands of police."

“Officers who exhibited high levels of occupational stress reported stress as a consequence of ethnic or racial bias. Moreover, officers reported considerable time and energy was spent helping co-workers deal with this prejudice and bias."

“Black people were more strongly associated with weapons, even if violent crime rates were higher for White people than Black people. Thus, the stereotype that Black people are violent reflects more than just an awareness of differential crime rates among Whites and Blacks."

“Simply frequenting an area where gangs are known to assemble has landed individuals in a gang database.” & “NYPD officials have acknowledged that as many as 95 percent of the people in its gang database are Black or Latinx.

“The us-versus-them orientation of this policing paradigm manifests in decidedly punitive approaches… Such aggressive policing converges on minority communities already distrustful of police."

“Police officers in the United States killed at least 104 unarmed Black people in 2015… Moreover, unarmed Black people were killed at five times the rate of unarmed Whites in 2015."

“Police officers are not the only ones who derive pleasure from racial domination” & “Whenever Whites have felt too socially or economically close to Blacks, they have lashed out… Trump connects with the White masses by offering them emotional appeasement."

“Findings of this research are…deeply morally disturbing… Victims of sexual violence, controlling for whether the assailant is a stranger and whether the attack is a rape, are most influenced in their reporting by the color of the body that attacked them."

“The FBI ‘detailed the threat’ of white supremacist groups infiltrating police departments….cautioned that…it would be a significant threat to national security… Despite these warnings, police departments do not have plans in place to out these types of officers."

“While the trends in the total-number of capital-eligible homicides show slight differences for Black and White victim events, the clearance rates are dramatically different. … White victim homicides are more likely to be cleared by arrest."

“People who attribute the cause of racial disparities to blacks committing more violations … engage in motivated reasoning.” & “Only a predictable subset of the population is responsive to information about racial disparities in the criminal justice system."

“Operation Impact…quickly increased the number of police officers in specific high-crime areas designated as ‘impact zones’” Found significant negative impact of these policies on standardized test scores of black youth in affected areas.

“Civil asset forfeiture was originally proposed to halt large criminal enterprises… but… disproportionately affected poor communities and communities of color and focuses too often on … low-level offenses—such as a $60 marijuana sale or a minor traffic infraction."

“Racist blue humor plays a role in rendering non-white officers more ‘blue’ than Black, Latino/a, Asian American, and so on…non-white police endure, and appear to adapt to…dominant police cultural norms… as officers of color either assimilate, or are rendered targets."

“Research suggests that Black males are often perceived not only as older but more physically threatening…heavier, taller… regardless of their actual height, weight, and musculature. These perceptions then led to justification for more aggressive measures by police."

“Through our study findings, we can paint a clear picture of the declines in dangerousness [of policing]… We can also provide an important historical context for the… perceived ‘war on cops’ in recent years, and our…findings reveal no evidence to support those claims."

“Officers…with a greater proportion of colleagues previously named in use of force complaints were more likely to be named in subsequent… complaints.” & “Must move beyond a focus on individual officers… [toward] deviant police networks."

“Police militarization is linked disproportionately to disadvantaged racial/ethnic groups. An examination of thousands of SWAT deployments found that … the disparity was even greater in deployments conducted for the purpose of serving a drug-related search warrant."

“We need not sit around and wait for proof of racial discrimination per se to draw conclusions about how police power is racialized. The fact that police–civilian encounters can be routinely and predictably disproportionate, racially, should be noteworthy, end of story."

“Black lives are systematically undervalued even when governments do compensate victims of police violence… Courts use race-based actuarial tables to calculate… lower damages valuations for Black lives since the tables estimate that they will live shorter lives."

“Arrest-driven aggressive order maintenance strategies directly affect people of color. Greater race, class, and gender inequality was associated with higher order maintenance arrest rates of Black residents even after … crime rates, and other … factors were controlled."

“Black drug arrests are likelier in predominantly White … neighborhoods. Unlike their White counterparts, … Black drug offenders [don’t] travel to White neighborhoods to engage in drug offending… Officers' raised suspicion of Blacks in White areas…"

“Journalists' tweeting generally sided with police… When they themselves were subject to police action, tweets from the journalists took a more sympathetic turn; breathing the same tear gas seemingly inspired greater sympathy for the protesters and their cause."

“Asserting one’s rights and symbolic resistance were uncommon strategies for both [Black] male and female respondents. This finding is expected given what we know about ‘the talk’—a set of instructions traditionally passed down from black parent to child."

“Unlike arrests for Whites, officers reported a larger and varied set of factors that motivated their contacts and eventual arrests of Blacks.” & “They invoked case law to justify these stops and surveillance on a lower legal basis than that for Whites."

“This project brought 24 young Black men and 14 police officers together for a three-week… intervention.” & “Data failed to capture any significant perception change … by the officers… average ‘neutral’ response when asked about their trust towards young Black men."

“When school districts expand resources for school police, minority students are disciplined more intensively.” & “Relative to White students, Black and Hispanic students are less likely to graduate high school and enroll in college” as a result of school police funding.

“Social liberals perceived more racism in violent police encounters with Black civilians. And, an intervention that led people to think about systemic racial inequality increased perceived racism in these situations regardless of political ideology."

[Brazil] “Controlling for all the considered individual level characteristics, verbal and physical victimization probability is statistically … higher for darker skin tone individuals… This pattern confirms … discrimination in the use of police force."

“Our findings indicated a consistent and statistically significant phenomenon that privileges light-skinned adolescents in their encounters with the police. Light-skinned teens were significantly less likely to be stopped by the police than other teens."

“Using a sample of 12,376 sworn law enforcement officers in 98 agencies… Officers perceiving [low public support of police] … become much more distrustful of the public, and are more likely to justify the use of coercive tactics in the course of police work."

* Frivolous race-based police calls “are particularly dangerous for Black people because they are rooted in private acts of force that are given legitimacy by law when White citizens enlist the police to enforce racial boundaries."*

Contact with police is a key vector through which children…come under the scrutiny of child welfare systems" & “Disparities originating in criminal justice may drift across organizational boundaries to reinforce the deep racial inequalities…of American child protection."

“Vicarious police contact among blacks and personal contact among Hispanics both shared a stronger inverse association with self-reported health than among whites. … Police contact is more strongly linked to worse self-reported health among nonwhites."

“We find that racial prejudice has a positive effect on the beliefs that police violence is justified. Finally, we find that among white respondents with higher levels of racial prejudice, police violence against black citizens is perceived as more justified."

“The [DOJ] reports demonstrate that officers frequently subjected [African Americans] to verbal abuse… Investigators found that officers' use of racially-charged language and crude jokes created a culture where blacks were dehumanized."

“This string of constitutional precedent … expand[s] the concept of ‘driving while black’ to include ‘parking while black’ … the effect of it being next to impossible to limit seizures based on racial profiling justified by reasonable suspicion of a parking violation."

“Young [Black] men… made frequent reference to officers' inability to apprehend…assailants… Study participants also ascribed the small probability that suspects would be arrested to their prevailing view that police did not care about making communities of color safe."

“Black Lives Matter does not focus on a binary and absolute understanding of victimhood… Rather, they emphasize the humanity of each person—victim or potential victim, criminal or not—derived from discourses of human rights… deaths [the] consequence of a social problem."

Criminalizing black youth by outlawing music genres popular with Black youth in Britain.

In a review of 75 police departments' use-of-force guidelines, finds: - 51% mention mental health; - 31% require exhaustion of non-force alternatives; - 27% require intervening in excessive use of force; - 17% require force to be proportional to threat; - 12% mention bias

“Our results suggest that transfers of military equipment to police departments has a fragmenting effect on civic engagement. Black households reduce charitable giving. The relative impact of police militarization is consistently worse for black households."

“These results raise the possibility of a particularly vicious cycle … it is easy to imagine how an erosion in public trust could lead to increased unreasonable force, further eroding public trust."

“Vicarious experiences clearly play an important role among African Nova Scotian women: despite rarely having confrontations with the police… awareness of the negative experiences faced by the Black men and boys in their lives shaped how participants perceived the police."