2020 | Police Research

946/

“Individuals from a Black, Asian and minority ethnic background were stopped at a rate 4.1 times higher than those who were from a White ethnic group.” & “… with the rate around 9.5 times higher for those identifying as Black or Black British compared to those who identify as White."

934/

929/

“Empirical evidence that is supportive of the hypothesized training effect of reduced disparity in enforcement is, on the whole, spotty and weak at best.” & “We find then, little evidence of the reductions in racial and ethnic disparities that we hypothesized would follow if officers practiced the FIP strategies for managing their biases."

920/

“While implicit bias training can help some officers, the little evidence we have indicates it only helps officers who come in already less inclined toward racism. Bias training isn’t effective on cops who are aware of and comfortable with their racial stereotypes."

905/

“Externally, the majority of [minority police officer] participants experienced hate crimes and incidents on duty because of the intersectionality of their police identity and personal identities. Internally, the majority of participants experienced bias and prejudice … because of … race, religion and gender."

900/

“Because there are inevitably unobserved factors that jointly influence the decisions to stop and use force, analyzing only stops introduces selection bias. Therefore, for the conclusions in Fryer (2019) to hold, there must be no racial bias in the decision to detain civilians — in other words, to deem these estimates credible, analysts must assume away racial bias in a study of racial bias."

899/

“Based on information from more than two million 911 calls in two US cities, [Mark Hoekstra] concluded that white officers dispatched to Black neighbourhoods fired their guns five times as often as Black officers dispatched for similar calls to the same neighbourhoods."

“As Blacks gain political momentum, they are better represented in police line ranks. Neither formal nor informal affirmative action policies had any effect.” & “As the representation of African Americans in manager and line positions approaches parity, there is a concomitant reduction in the disparity between Black and White drug arrest rates."

884/

“Whites (2%) were less likely than blacks (4%) or Hispanics (3%) to experience threats or use of force.” & “In 2018, blacks and Hispanics (5% each) were more likely than whites (2%) or persons of other races (2%) to experience at least one type of force during their most recent contact with police."

882/

“Despite official policies to address implicit biases, both gender and racial stereotypes continue to impede Canada’s efforts to adequately address radicalization into, and disengagement from, extremist violence."

878/

“Meticulous research has uncovered the insidious routes the legacies of slavery, Jim and Jane Crow, and segregation have taken to maintain White supremacist power, all while under the guise of being post-racial. Research has also revealed how police departments across the country have been enforcers of that hidden code."

876/

“In 2018, Louisville’s Metro Government’s ‘Vision Russell’ initiative was able to leverage funding … to increase surveillance… This expanded police power … resulted in a sharp increase in public nuisance cases, with 84% of those in Louisville’s predominantly Black western half."

875/

“In cities with relatively large Black populations, the returns to police manpower in reducing homicides and index crime arrests are smaller or non-existent for Black civilians, while Black civilians experience especially large increases in low-level or ‘quality of life’ arrests."

873/

“White males were more likely than other demographic groups to blame the media for overstating police brutality and distorting the honorable nature of police.” & “While other demographic groups saw the riots and looting as exceptions to meaningful protests, the White males were more prone to seeing police brutality as exceptional."

872/

“The mainstream media tacitly endorse the killing of the Black person by showing the killing cop’s elegant photographs in his official uniform, perhaps taken during his graduation from the police academy, alongside a mugshot of the victim."

871/

“Analysis of the news further indicated that the discourses and statements of the demonstrators were not included. After Floyd’s death, there was no questioning of the functioning of the effectiveness of the trialing process. The aspect of violence was overemphasized. There was not much emphasis on police violence, the fairness of the trial or the racist approach faced by the blacks in society."

870/

“This analysis not only reinforces the large-scale issue of police misconduct, but it reveals the disproportionate rate of police misconduct victimization among African Americans… 200 of the 301 acts discovered (66%) victimized African American exonerees, outweighing other races near two-fold."

869/

“Systemic racism is evident at every stage of the system, from policing to prosecutorial decisions, pretrial release processes, sentencing, correctional discipline, and even reentry."

867/

“There are significant racial disparities in all types of arrests, especially those involving bench warrants. Although the race gap declined, in 2019, there were still more than four Black people arrested for bench warrants for every White person."

864/

“In short, the implication that there is a safe way for law enforcement to restrain using carotid manipulation, or traumatic manipulation of cerebral blood flow in any form, is simply false. Carotid compression contributes to potential neurologic sequelae via oxygen deprivation, embolic risk from mechanical vessel wall trauma, or arrhythmia. The possibility of devastating repercussions is too high to merit the use of neck restraints in any circumstance."

“Cities with police departments where whites are in the highest position of power have 40 percent more fatal officer-involved shootings than cities with blacks in power.” Results hold after controlling for crime rates and city racial makeup.

856/

“Homicides were less likely to be solved in communities with higher proportions of minorities, for both minority and white victims.” & “Among African-American victims, homicide clearance was less likely during the years 2015–2017, compared to 10 years ago."

855/

“Of course, the use of deadly force by police is sometimes justifiable. But when the triggering circumstances are ambiguous, Black people are far more likely to be killed by the police than white people.” & “Policing in the United States is in urgent need of reform."

854/

“Minority … officers reported lower levels of psychological safety and attachment to the organization. Minority officers were also less likely to perceive they were treated fairly. “

845/

“Annual arrest rate for marijuana possession for Black individuals was… 3.5 times higher than the arrest rate for white individuals… The higher arrest… rates for Black individuals are not attributable to differences in rates of marijuana use.” (h/t @slarjy)

844/

“Officers use force more often and at more severe levels only when interacting with citizens in neighborhoods with higher percentages of Black and Hispanic residents… and use more severe levels of force in those neighborhoods."

840/

“Policing functions as a mechanism by which integration is reversed once Black residents move to historically White neighborhoods… The consequences of this policing may include fines, evictions, or informal pressure on tenants to leave."

839/

“If the police agency ends up setting priorities and structuring activities in relation to stereotypical ideas of place, then policing can consolidate the character of unequal neighborhoods… [Policing strategies] … amplified racialized disparities in service provision."

837/

“Dehumanizing language is effective at getting White citizens to be less supportive of national anthem protests, but only when the target of the dehumanization is Black… These effects do not persist when the dehumanized player is White."

834/

“In Vermont, there is evidence that black and Hispanic drivers face disparate treatment by police as compared to white and, in some cases, Asian drivers… Vermont racial disparities in policing are wider than in more racially heterogeneous states."

829/

“Comparing nearly 8,000 police officers to millions of other IAT test-takers, researchers found alarming implicit and explicit bias among police…while Black people exhibited lower levels of bias, Black police displayed more pro-white/anti-Black bias than other Black people."

823/

“Many Black men feel wearing a mask is a bigger threat than the coronavirus… Black individuals also appear more likely to be targeted by police for simply wearing masks. In a heartbreaking calculus, many are choosing not to wear them at all."

822/

“Analysis demonstrated, first, that Black officers were consistently rated more positively than both White and Asian officers” & “In sum, our findings offer some support for the idea that increasing the representativeness of UK policing, … will reap dividends."

821/

“When one is confronted with the stark racial disparities in arrest… the cognitively simplest reaction is simply to ascribe to different groups different propensities for criminality… This misattribution… therefore need not inspire us to corrective action."

816/

“While the officers acknowledged [joking] existed and that it was racial, officers perceived the joking as harmless and merely as part of the occupation; as a part of the typical policing experience.” & “The joking is contextualized as common, harmless, and explicable."

814/

“Federal… investigations concluded that the use of excessive lethal force was prevalent in some police departments along with patterns of civil rights violations… In 2017, these investigations of police departments were halted by the… Trump Administration."

813/

Chicago’s “understanding of homicide evolved from Black bootleggers in the 1920s, to civil rights agitators in the 1960s, to gangs in the 1980s, and unemployed mentor-less Black youth in 2016."

812/

“Black and Hispanic [school] girls who receive special education faced the greatest disparities, as they were six times more likely to be referred to law enforcement and seven times more likely to be arrested than White girls who receive special education."

810/

“We found that Black Canadian and Indigenous people are more likely to be arrested for cannabis possession than White people.” & “The limited evidence available suggests that cannabis use varies little across racial groups in Canada."

809/

“Black female victims were significantly more likely to be portrayed as ‘bad’ people… Stories about White… victims were significantly more likely… to describe the victim as preyed upon by a predator… [and] produce sympathetic overall narratives."

808/

“Chicago PD has kept… a gang database since the 1980s… People can be added to the database at the discretion of Chicago police … who are not required to provide any evidence of gang affiliation or criminal activity… More than 95% are black or Latinx."

“There does not appear to be any evidence that increased BLM protest activity had an impact on … crime [or] officer assaults.” & “Increased protests decrease the number of fatal interactions of Black individuals with police in the subsequent month."

802/

“Police in schools with predominately students of color are more likely to be focused on discipline, whereas police in schools with predominately White students are more likely to be a part of emergency response teams collaborating in moments of crisis."

No relationship between suspect race and injury to police. “Thus, it seems rather unlikely that racial differences in how citizens view the police is relevant in explicating why police are more likely to use force against Black suspects."

779/

“Victims killed in predominantly Black neighborhoods receive less news coverage than those killed in predominantly White neighborhoods… [and] were significantly less likely to be discussed as multidimensional humans… net of all controls."

778/

“Analysis of traffic stop data across eight states concludes that about 30-40% of individual officers exhibit a relatively high propensity to stop black drivers, a figure that appears large compared to the ‘rotten apples’ hypothesis."

775/

Police “deploy more officers to protests when the protests are against the police…Police at protests against them—especially Black-led demonstrations—tend to use more force… Explains why police…ignored the armed demonstrations against…public health orders."

774/

“Whereas people in minority groups are stopped by police at a higher rate than whites, the hit rate (e.g. for possession of contraband…) for these groups is lower than it is for whites… Racial profiling is less successful at apprehending criminals than random searches."

773/

"[Many] white people … seek to remedy systemic racism by prioritizing institutional change (defund the police) over individual change (stop calling the very police officers that you want to defund on Black and Brown people who are trying to enjoy public spaces)."

772/

“The black homicide rate is positively associated with fear of crime, while the non-black homicide rate is not… black homicides inspire more fear of crime than non-black homicides… fear of crime can account for a sizable portion of… [incarceration] racial disparity."

771/

"[Data] does not support the interpretation that differences in the severity of criminal conduct… alone can explain the substantial racial disparities… We believe that this evidence is consistent with racially disparate initial charging practices." (h/t @JulieMFaenza)

754/

“Black drivers were overstopped by between 55% to 236%, depending on the measure… Black drivers were almost 4 times more likely to be searched subsequent to a stop than white drivers… White drivers were much more likely to be found with contraband that led to an arrest."

752/

“In short, where property values are higher, police kill more people. Where poor and non-white people coexist with wealthy or white people, police kill more people. The higher property values are, the more race and class matter."

751/

“We … find that white [police] supervisors are less likely to nominate black officers [for awards] than white or Hispanic officers. These results control for officer characteristics, including experience, arrest record, and misconduct."

749/

“Police search black motorists 3x more than white motorists. But (!), searches of black motorists don’t yield more contraband."

741/

“The productivity of searches of Black drivers is lower than that of white drivers for all three hit rates… of particular interest, given racial stereotypes on drug trafficking, the white arrest-worthy hit rate is 25.6% compared to 19.7% for Black drivers."

740/

“Self-identified Republicans but not Democrats perceive higher levels of violence when a disliked group is protesting."

700/

“The loss of years per 100,000 people over their collective lifetimes is largest for Black men, with… 3,772 years are lost to police use of force… Black men’s cumulative loss of life is just over 2.5 times white men’s."

643/

“Boys of color… are more likely… to be disciplined in school with… potential diversion into the school-to-prison pipeline. If they do come into contact with police… they are more likely to be placed in the juvenile justice system rather than… a diversion program."

633/

Significant, long-lasting increase in discretionary stops of Black drivers following Trump rallies (no effect on drivers of other races or following other candidates' rallies). h/t @aortmannphd

622/

"[Fryer] does not establish credible evidence on the presence or absence of discrimination against African Americans in police shootings" & “Absence of any considered analysis of… endogeneity of interactions… undermines any conclusion that there is no discrimination."

619/

“When cities rely more heavily on fines, fees, and forfeitures… racial disparity in searches increases… contraband hit-rates increase sharply for whites as a reliance on fees increases, but not for blacks."

608/

“The rate of stops for Black drivers decreased 15% between 2009 and 2019, while the rate of stops for white drivers fell by 28%… In 2019, the rate of stops for Black drivers was more than twice that of white drivers.” (h/t @JulieMFaenza)

604/

“Black parents and parents with stronger police legitimacy attitudes reported they would place greater importance on transmitting messages to their children about compliance with the police."

603/

“Although our data and statistical approach were valid to estimate the question we actually tested…given continued misuse of the article (e.g. MacDonald 2020) we felt the right decision was to retract the article rather than publish further corrections.” cc:@ManhattanInst

601/

“Enfranchisement of black voters leads to a reduction in black arrest rates, but only when CLEOs are elected, rather than appointed” & “In the presence of elected police chiefs… arrests of blacks …fall in counties that were … covered [by the Voting Rights Act]."

571/

“Black officers were more likely to have negative perceptions of their interactions with colleagues than Whites, but Blacks had higher perceptions of the culture of the department, i.e., its policies and procedures and standards used in assessment and promotion."

“Police did change alongside changes in a neighborhood’s racial makeup and increases in real estate prices net of any changes in crime.” & “Net of crime…police made more order-maintenance… arrests underscoring policing’s role in early-stage urban ‘renewal.'” @BrendenBeck

“From [the police] perspective, racism has not been perpetuated if the officer is not racist. In this case, the officer was just looking for criminals… [But the] idea of what a ‘criminal’ looks like is based on a racial stereotype."

503/

“Prosecutors joining police unions would also, likely, bolster the view that prosecutors collude with the police to prevent criminal justice reform from taking root even with reformist elected prosecutors in office and that such offices are usually systemically racist."

500/

“We find that the use of force against African American subjects significantly increases the week after an African American individual injures the officer’s peer… Surprisingly … force against a White suspect falls … after a White assailant injures an officer."

484/

“Protesters’ claims of structural exclusions and state violence threatens the reality and core ideas of the white frame… Instead of engaging with a non-white reality, patriarchal patriots instead focused on the threats and the harms they experienced from the protests."

480/

“Police officers often use the charge of ‘resisting arrest’ to criminalize black people who try to defend themselves from brutal, punitive, and often illegal police actions. They also do so to justify the violence it takes to compel compliance—even … in taking a life."

473/

“Protestors… in opposition to white power activity were perceived by police as ‘disobedient’ … In contrast, white power mobilization was viewed as nonthreatening even though some of the organizing groups have a history of … domestic terrorism."

“Like previous research I find clear evidence of bias in police-caused killings using data from 2015 to 2018. … Latinos were 1.26 times as likely as whites … Blacks were 1.38 times as likely as whites to have been unarmed prior to getting killed by police."

456/

“When higher short-run revenue is necessary, officers shift their limited resources of time to increased targeting of white drivers. … police focus … on people of color in the absence of fiscal distress, despite lower hitrates among these motorists than white drivers."

448/

“The homicide of McDonald was also notable for what it revealed in the internal workings of the Chicago Police Department—a culture of silence that protects, rather than roots out, ‘bad apples.'"

447/

“Policing practices may have directly increased… the risk that individuals become infected with COVID-19… forced crowding—on streets, in police cars, on buses, and in jails—and the use of ‘riot control agents’ … cornering protesters in tight spaces … (‘kettling’)…"

445/

“The fact that many of the officers … minimize the problem of race-based disparities, place blame on external actors, including members of the media and the interested public, or deny it outright, suggests an unwillingness to recognize the legitimacy of the … problem."

444/

“From a statistical point of view, focusing on one racial group more than another consequently serves as a self-fulfilling prophecy, skewing the crime stats towards that particular racial group, regardless of the ‘true’ crime rate associate with that group."

431/

“Police killings were positively and significantly associated with syphilis and gonorrhoea rates among Black residents. Each additional police killing in 2015 was associated with syphilis rates that were 7.5% higher and gonorrhoea rates that were 4.0% higher in 2016."

429/

“A criminal suspect with a prior record is substantially more apt than a suspect without a criminal record to be arrested by police.” & “Black suspects with a prior criminal history also fail to have an elevated likelihood of arrest unless they target White victims."

425/

“In the last decade, approximately 76% of [Oakland’s] homicide victims were black. During that time period, police made arrests in approximately 40% of Oakland homicides involving black victims and approximately 80% of homicides involving white victims."

424/

“Collectively … results … provide suggestive evidence that it is an urge to provide a socially desirable response, not a desire for racial justice, that makes whites less likely to state that shooting is justified when explicit racial cues are present."

421/

“Of the officers responsible for the roughly 13,000 police killings between 2005 and 2018, only about 0.002% were ever convicted of a crime."

414/

“The toxic stress caused by racism…the need for new rules and standards to reduce extreme racial disparities in arrests for low-level offenses—disparities that are a cause of so much stress and trauma for African Americans."

389/

“Implicit and explicit bias in policing are important problems that need to be addressed. … However, the contemporary focus on implicit and explicit biases obscures another significant contributor to police violence: legal doctrine."

340/

“Hassling by the police that is perceived as being racist also appears to promote … illegal behavior for some Black adolescents, especially those who are high in RP [racial pride]… In the absence of police discrimination, RP is associated with less illegal behavior."

336/

“Our analysis demonstrates wide geographic variation in the incidence of fatal police violence… areas of the count[r]y with low rates overall tended to also exhibit the most severe Black-White inequities."

334/

“Our comparison of fruitless searches to arrest rates also allows us to assess the efficiency or accuracy of whatever demographic targeting the police may be doing. In all this, we find that White male officers are in a category of their own [often searching fruitlessly]."

327/

“Concerns about [police officers] being killed on the job, although serious, have been greatly over exaggerated to warrant dramatic increases in police shootings and killing of unarmed suspects of color."

324/

By focusing traffic stops on actual moving violations rather than officer “investigatory” stops, “Both measures of Black non-Hispanic traffic stop disparities were reduced” & “All three measures of negative traffic outcomes [crashes, injuries, fatalities] were also reduced."

323/

Fryer (finally) shows some* regret that his results have been the racists’ favorite rallying cry.*

319/

“Across all crime benchmarks in all years, there is substantial evidence of anti-Black racial disparities in the killing of unarmed noncriminals by police. Here, we fail to recover the principle findings of Cesario et al. (2019)."

318/

“Black male drivers are two to three times more likely to experience a search than white males, even when controlling for other predictors of search. … Thus, racial disparities in traffic stop searches cannot be ‘explained away.'"

314/

“Health care systems … should take a clear position that the disproportionate killing of black (and indigenous and Latinx) people at the hands of police runs counter to their commitment to ensuring the health, safety, and well-being of patients."

313/

“Policing perpetuates racial housing segregation”

312/

Externalities of police killings on neighborhoods: “Women living in lethally surveilled neighborhoods [more police killings] face a greater risk of morbidity than comparable women living in less lethal neighborhoods.” (forthcoming @ERSjournal; @aasewell @DrKLG4Health)

296/

Same PNAS paper fails to control for population, demographic, and suicidality rates. “Contrary to [Johnson et al.’s] claim, their data are entirely consistent with the public perception that young male victims of fatal use of force are disproportionally Black."

295/

A PNAS paper finding no racial bias confuses (i) probability of black person being shot by police with (ii) probability of shooting victim being black. “Johnson et al.’s analysis cannot recover these shooting rates because all observations in the data involve shootings."

294/

“Recent work on race and policing, including some by public administration scholars, has tested the community violence hypothesis but has failed to find evidence that violent crime rates correlate with police-involved homicides of Black citizens."

288/

“We find that post-litigation affirmative action increased the shares of black officers, and substantially reduced both racial disparities in crime victimization, and rates of black crime victimization, without increasing rates of white crime victimization."

283/

“Blue hate crime laws contain a racially divisive message that pits police and Black citizens against each other. Framing police as the victims of hate crime inevitably functions to indict Black citizens as the source of this violent persecution."

People with “more frequent and meaningful contact with Blacks and other minority groups,” with “more favorability toward Whites than Blacks” or with greater “conservativism” were more likely to justify police brutality and to oppose BLM.

274/

“Police unions have fought to shield their members from public scrutiny and legal accountability. And police unions repeatedly have rallied behind politicians hostile to criminal justice reform, racial justice, and labor rights.” [Proposes more nuanced discussion of unions]

272/

"[Homeless] participants… could not rely on the police for protection and support… Participants who identified as transgender and as youth of color in particular reported situations in which they believed they were targeted because of their intersecting identities."

267/

“We present evidence that under the most conservative estimates, 40% of black people recently shot by police were shot during a stop in which they were not suspected of committing a violent crime."

266/

“Fatal use of force against an unarmed, fleeing suspect is not justified under a constitutional test, or a benefit-cost test. Black people are disproportionately victims … of these unjust police shootings."

265/

“In the 1960s… A new race-neutral language was evolving that appealed to old racist sentiments, and supporters found they could implement a new caste system by demanding ‘law and order’ as opposed to ‘segregation forever.'"

264/

“For Black people, it does not matter if they are uneducated or have a PhD, they have a similar likelihood of being killed by police because of their Blackness."

263/

“Denial of race or racial prejudice as a factor in such incidents functions to further instantiate white supremacy… [When] race is successfully denied, then structural racism need not be challenged or eradicated… Denial of racism is… ‘fundamental’ to its persistence."

262/

“The excusability or justifiability of using lethal force… no longer apply once the victim is ‘down’ and obviously injured or disabled. The attitude underlying the officers' failure of concern… is precisely what the ‘Black Lives Matter’ slogan is meant to … challenge."

260/

Historical context matters. A lot. Here’s a thread of about twenty studies on historical racial disparities.

“White owned bars with exactly the same license and inspection violations as minority owned bars were treated differently… [Despite] numerous… shootings… and fights… [white owned bars] had never been subject to the hyper-scrutiny [and] ongoing police surveillance."

253/

“I find significant, negative effects of police violence on the educational attainment of black and Hispanic students… Police killings may have large long-run effects on local communities."

252/

“Having police in schools was associated with an additional arrest of 1.22 Black students, but only 0.38 White and 0.48 Hispanic students per 1,000… These findings may arise because school police… may be acting on their own implicit biases."

248/

“Racial profiling … is not new; more to the point, it is not gone… It corrodes relationships between police and communities, leaving people of color knowing that they have been treated unfairly and understandably resentful of police… It does nothing to fight crime."

247/

“Officers… kill a substantial number of civilians who do not pose a lethal threat and these civilians are disproportionately people of color.” & “Nearly half of the time that an officer kills a civilian, the civilian is either unarmed or armed with a [less lethal] weapon."

237/

Another thread dissecting that horribly hackish WSJ editorial and that irresponsibly reported “Harvard study."

234/

No evident correlation between police killings and level of violence.

218/

(A better summary of the above paper)

217/

“Our analysis can reconcile the distinction Fryer Jr. (2016) documents between lethal and non-lethal force against civilians…. Black civilians should be disproportionately subject to non-lethal force but not necessarily … [to] lethal encounters with police."

214/

“Compared with [police misconduct] allegations filed by white complainants, allegations from black complainants were 0.499 times less likely to be sustained. … Allegations made by [police] were sustained at a rate 21.6 times higher than allegations made by outsiders."

213/

“This finding comports with prior LIH [“Legal Intervention Homicide” by police] research that finds that black Americans are not only disproportionately likely to be killed by law enforcement but are disproportionately unlikely to present an objective threat of deadly force”

“The police are viewed negatively, or at best neutrally, but never positively, by young women of color… Findings of our study also emphasize that perceptions of the police held by women of color are influenced both by personal and vicarious experiences of police behavior."

210/

“Suspect resistance exerts the strongest effects on the odds of [police] force being used… We also observed statistically significant differences in the application of force by suspect age, sex, race, and mental illness—above and beyond the effects of resistance."

209/

“Blue Lives Matter emphasizes that police officers are subject to violence from criminals. Shifting the vulnerability in this way suggests that police vulnerability trumps black vulnerability… it is a solipsistic ‘put the focus back on us’ move."

208/

“Chicago police were 20 to 50 percent more likely to give sticker citations to vehicles parked in black neighborhoods compared to vehicles parked in non-black neighborhoods. The effect is robust to controls for annual employment levels and is not driven by … compliance."

“This study … found racial disparities in drug arrests for 152 out of 198 police departments in Pennsylvania."

205/

The Supreme Court’s Strieff decision “fails to recognize how the opinion encourages dragnet policing, including racially targeted dragnet policing, without fear of liability, civil or otherwise."

204/

“It can be tempting to equate racial disparities in policing with racist police officers and make the common mistake of singling out the ‘few bad apples’ … Rather than a problem that only a few police officers face … race affects the judgments and decisions we all make."

“As [a state’s] liberal population increased 1% point, the likelihood of Black police killings decreased at a rate of 3.700% (0.963)… as the size of the Black population increases across states, there is a subsequent decrease in police shootings at a rate of 16.500%."

200/

“Police and law enforcement discrimination is common among Black [sexual minority men] as about 43% of participants reported it over the past year… Rates of police and law enforcement discrimination were … associated with both psychological distress and sexual HIV risk."

198/

“Whites can possess a gun … and carry that gun freely without suspicion or scrutiny … a privilege not afforded to black and brown Americans even when the gun they possess is a toy, or more hauntingly, even when the thing they possess is a cell phone or wallet."

197/

“Caucasians were not apprehensive of being harassed or wrongfully accused by police officers, but their African American counterparts were.” & “Accused are innocent until proven guilty; however, my findings revealed that participants perceived this as being the opposite."

196/

“Police legitimacy and legal authoritarian attitudes significantly predicted [teachers'] belief that the Black student—but not the White student—should be punished [and] … are particularly likely to condone police violence if the victimized student is Black."

8.3% of black women who experienced sexual violence “reported to formal reporting sources. These numbers are less than the national average that indicates one third of people aged 12 or older report sexual violence to the police.” Non-reporting corr. w/ “mistrust of police."

190/

“The longstanding practice of deferring to the reasonableness of police officers’ expertise fails to effectively protect persons of color by allowing racial bias to influence an officer’s use of deadly force.” & “… [R]acial stereotypes [can] distort assessments of threat”

188/

“Science proves that when people get racial cues, such as seeing black faces, we fill in blank spots with perceptions of fear…” & “When we train our officers that the possibility for deadly violence exists always … they will … begin to see it where it does not lie."

187/

“Were the[y]… to protest, they risk being met with violent, racially disparate police responses … Racially biased policing in the United States thus forces…African Americans … to choose between their standing up for themselves and risking their personal safety."

186/

Black and Latinx youth “expressed concerns about the way officers interacted with them during police encounters, citing the lack of respect as the primary issue, frequent harassment, feeling overpowered, fear, and an overall experience of being dehumanized during encounters”

184/

“While the majority of white respondents who read about a white victim blamed the officer (56.0%), white respondents who read a[n identical] story about an African American young man were almost 20 percentage points less likely to fault the officer (37.7%)."

183/

"[Many] believe that black and brown youths buy, sell, and use drugs at a higher rate … when in fact youths of all races buy, sell, and use drugs at roughly the same rate and the disproportionate incarceration … owes to biases in legislation, policing, and sentencing"

182/

“The race-based police stop is a primary gateway to police killings … The conformist model represented in prominent versions of The Talk … lowers the cost of the race-based stop, incentivizing race-based police stops of African Americans."

181/

“The adverse effects of police violence on the physical and mental health of black people and the clear racial lines along which police violence occurs place it at odds with the overarching goal of public health."

“Severe racial disparities [are] often an inevitable result of of the tactics the police adopt.” & “When police are called to the scene they bring with them what they have been trained to do: deploy force and law. Yet, these are often the wrong responses to … a situation."

178/

“White officers are 1.28 times more likely to use higher levels of force on Black civilians in Dallas [than on white civilians].” & “Officers use higher levels of force on civilians as officer years of service increase."

177/

Black citizens prefer and view as more fair intersections regulated by red light cameras rather than intersections regulated by police officers when expecting white officers. Whites view police officers as more fair.

176/

“A large majority of black residents, 66.9%, either somewhat or strongly agree that the local police abuse their power.” & “Even a majority of whites in the DC area agree that police treat blacks worse than whites."

175/

[UK] “In this paper we have discussed a series of Bayesian tools for application to the UK Stop-and-Search database… We find conclusively that racial bias are present within stop-and-searches and provide a tool for analysing this at Force by Force basis."

172/

“Profilers, whether they be police officers or lay citizens, invite the hand (and force) of law enforcement into a situation where there is no need for law enforcement… The object of the profiling—in this case African-Americans—are at the mercy of the officer’s judgment."

170/

“Citizens of black neighborhoods were far less likely to report crimes to the police” & “Cooperation of neighborhood residents with law enforcement, including crime reporting, turns on how police use their authority, and how fair the exercise of their authority is perceived”

169/

“If it is simply ‘driving while different’ that explains the attention given to minorities in majority White places, one would expect to find equal[] … police response for White people… in Black neighborhoods… Results imply bias that only runs… against Black people."

168/

"[As of 2019], the intensive policing practices in poor Black communities show no sign of having been eased and have probably been reinstated in many places with federal support."

167/

“A towering heap of studies suggest that US drug-control policies and practices are harmful, oppressive, or problematic, particularly for predominantly Black and Latinx communities."

166/

“Data show discretionary stops by police in Connecticut (sometimes called pretext stops) are twice as high for Blacks than Whites with no scientific evidence or information to justify the difference in rates.” (Cato T. Laurencin @UConn)

165/

“Black Americans were grossly over-represented in … Newark’s drug arrests. When controlling for legally relevant factors … Black arrests reflected racialized policing. … [and] increased in communities with greater White … populations."

163/

More evidence of health effects of racial bias and police violence.

162/

“In each of the past four reports, we have found evidence that minority motorists are subject to searches much more frequently relative to their non-Hispanic White counterparts despite those searches being far less successful."

161/

“Intertwined with the disparate treatment of same-sex couples is the issue of race. … All other racial combinations were less likely to result in dual arrest than those in which both parties were White. … police are taking incidents involving Whites more seriously."

160/

“The findings here indicate a potential that [police] stereotype those they might encounter on the street. It is difficult … to determine if this finding confirms that respondents are either ‘profiling’ the person described in the vignette or experiencing implicit bias."

148/

“Interventions, such as inherent-bias training, aim to alter the way police officers interact with Black individuals. The empirical evidence … suggests that training and interventions that change the way police interact with Black neighborhoods are needed."

147/

Thread on why academic studies (in econ and most other fields) are biased against finding racial bias.

146/

“White support for spending on policing is driven by racial resentment and punitiveness across 3 nationally representative samples. Robust to controls for local crime and fear of crime."

145/

“After controlling for a myriad of factors, it is clear that certain racial, gender, age, and class groups are much more heavily targeted [for vehicle searches] than others. Racially, black and Latinx drivers are targeted most heavily."

144/

“Officers used neighborhood conditions and prior knowledge of problem areas to justify detaining otherwise law-abiding Black citizens.” and “The pronounced pattern of arbitrary pedestrian stops … is suggestive of racially biased policing."

143/

“This finding reaffirms theories of colorblind and laissez-faire racism … and shows that a subset of Americans may be cloaking their concerns about the racial order behind a superficially nonracial support of the police."

142/

“Enacting a primary enforcement seat belt law in South Carolina led to a larger relative increase in the number of stops to Black drivers beyond that experienced by White drivers."

141/

Further, much of Fryer’s analysis relies on officers' self-reporting a suspect’s race. As @eluhper has convincingly shown for traffic stops in Texas, “misreporting was used effectively to evade detection of bias."

139/

(cont) “Replicating and extending … Fryer (2019), … the consequences of ignoring the selective process that generates police data are severe, leading analysts to dramatically underestimate or conceal entirely the differential police violence faced by civilians of color."

138/

For those who don’t want to read the 136 papers above, @dean_c_knox, @conjugateprior, @jonmummolo

101/

“How the racial composition of schools shapes SROs' perceptions of threats."

93/

(thread describing forthcoming work):

89/

“Does Race Matter for Police Use of Force? Evidence from 911 Calls”

88/

“Scrutiny may induce law enforcement officers to purposefully misreport their interactions with citizens to appear less biased.” Finds 60% of troopers misreported a minority as white when a searched failed to yield any evidence of a crime.

87/

“To fix our policing problem, we have to start with our racism problem."

75/

“Findings suggest neighborhood mobility, in and of itself, may not provide sufficient protection for blacks from the racialized policing and prosecutorial systems that have produced inequality in likelihood of incarceration."

56/

An oft-cited methodological issue with Fryer and others’ “whites are shot more often” argument.

54/

“Researchers say police de-escalation helps keep protests peaceful. Police keep using escalation techniques, anyway."

53/

“Police brutality is of little concern for White respondents. Only 6.6% worry a lot. … By contrast, experiencing police brutality is a major concern … for nearly one-third of Blacks."

47/

“Using data from The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, logistic regression analyses indicated that darker skin tone significantly increased the odds of suspension for African American adolescents."

44/

“Policing, police departments, and individual police officers have a long history of reinforcing the boundaries of race” and “Racial comparisons of police trust thus miss the larger story of legal estrangement emanating in part from racial segregation."

30/

“Presence of female officers during pedestrian stops in the City of Seattle reduces racial/ethnic and male-female disparities in the probability of being frisked by police."

29/

“Black and Hispanic complainants are much less likely to have their allegations of police misconduct sustained. Black complainants are 4.2 times more likely that their misconduct allegation will culminate in the exoneration of the police officer."

28/

“Results revealed that Black (vs. White) people were more likely to be frisked, searched, arrested, and have force used against them. Critically, these racial disparities were more pronounced for people stopped in groups (vs. alone)."

27/

“Black citizens were more likely than white citizens to be shot at when comparing the known race/ethnicity of citizens who discharged firearms against officers in California” (but fatalities were not significantly different nationally).

26/

“Officers’ accounts excuse, justify, or otherwise negate the role of race in routine police work, yet officers’ thoughts and actions are based on racialized and, at times, dehumanizing narratives about people and communities of color."

25/

“The bar for searching black and Hispanic drivers was lower than that for searching white drivers."

22/

“Police stop fewer black drivers at night when a ‘veil of darkness’ obscures their race."

19/

Philadelphia police “may be using a lower bar for reasonable suspicion in their decisions to frisk Black residents… The proportion Black in an area was significantly associated with heightened odds of a person being subjected to an unproductive frisk."

7/

“We study speeding tickets and the choice of officers to discount drivers to a speed right below an onerous punishment… racial bias is due to 20% of officers."

206 entries found for 2020

“Individuals from a Black, Asian and minority ethnic background were stopped at a rate 4.1 times higher than those who were from a White ethnic group.” & “… with the rate around 9.5 times higher for those identifying as Black or Black British compared to those who identify as White."

“The good news is that the Black and Hispanic populations are low among the citizenry. Racial bias and blind spots appear to be deeply entrenched in the APD [North Carolina Apex Police Department] culture."

“While implicit bias training can help some officers, the little evidence we have indicates it only helps officers who come in already less inclined toward racism. Bias training isn’t effective on cops who are aware of and comfortable with their racial stereotypes."

“Based on information from more than two million 911 calls in two US cities, [Mark Hoekstra] concluded that white officers dispatched to Black neighbourhoods fired their guns five times as often as Black officers dispatched for similar calls to the same neighbourhoods."

“Despite official policies to address implicit biases, both gender and racial stereotypes continue to impede Canada’s efforts to adequately address radicalization into, and disengagement from, extremist violence."

“In 2018, Louisville’s Metro Government’s ‘Vision Russell’ initiative was able to leverage funding … to increase surveillance… This expanded police power … resulted in a sharp increase in public nuisance cases, with 84% of those in Louisville’s predominantly Black western half."

“In cities with relatively large Black populations, the returns to police manpower in reducing homicides and index crime arrests are smaller or non-existent for Black civilians, while Black civilians experience especially large increases in low-level or ‘quality of life’ arrests."

“The mainstream media tacitly endorse the killing of the Black person by showing the killing cop’s elegant photographs in his official uniform, perhaps taken during his graduation from the police academy, alongside a mugshot of the victim."

“This analysis not only reinforces the large-scale issue of police misconduct, but it reveals the disproportionate rate of police misconduct victimization among African Americans… 200 of the 301 acts discovered (66%) victimized African American exonerees, outweighing other races near two-fold."

“Systemic racism is evident at every stage of the system, from policing to prosecutorial decisions, pretrial release processes, sentencing, correctional discipline, and even reentry."

“There are significant racial disparities in all types of arrests, especially those involving bench warrants. Although the race gap declined, in 2019, there were still more than four Black people arrested for bench warrants for every White person."

“Results indicate an increase of approximately 11% in depression-related ED visits at 0 and 3 months after police killing of unarmed African Americans… No relation to police killings of armed African Americans… A racism-related indicator… the unarmed status."

“Cities with police departments where whites are in the highest position of power have 40 percent more fatal officer-involved shootings than cities with blacks in power.” Results hold after controlling for crime rates and city racial makeup.

“Homicides were less likely to be solved in communities with higher proportions of minorities, for both minority and white victims.” & “Among African-American victims, homicide clearance was less likely during the years 2015–2017, compared to 10 years ago."

“Of course, the use of deadly force by police is sometimes justifiable. But when the triggering circumstances are ambiguous, Black people are far more likely to be killed by the police than white people.” & “Policing in the United States is in urgent need of reform."

“Minority … officers reported lower levels of psychological safety and attachment to the organization. Minority officers were also less likely to perceive they were treated fairly. “

“Annual arrest rate for marijuana possession for Black individuals was… 3.5 times higher than the arrest rate for white individuals… The higher arrest… rates for Black individuals are not attributable to differences in rates of marijuana use.” (h/t @slarjy)

“Officers use force more often and at more severe levels only when interacting with citizens in neighborhoods with higher percentages of Black and Hispanic residents… and use more severe levels of force in those neighborhoods."

“Policing functions as a mechanism by which integration is reversed once Black residents move to historically White neighborhoods… The consequences of this policing may include fines, evictions, or informal pressure on tenants to leave."

“If the police agency ends up setting priorities and structuring activities in relation to stereotypical ideas of place, then policing can consolidate the character of unequal neighborhoods… [Policing strategies] … amplified racialized disparities in service provision."

“Dehumanizing language is effective at getting White citizens to be less supportive of national anthem protests, but only when the target of the dehumanization is Black… These effects do not persist when the dehumanized player is White."

“In Vermont, there is evidence that black and Hispanic drivers face disparate treatment by police as compared to white and, in some cases, Asian drivers… Vermont racial disparities in policing are wider than in more racially heterogeneous states."

“Comparing nearly 8,000 police officers to millions of other IAT test-takers, researchers found alarming implicit and explicit bias among police…while Black people exhibited lower levels of bias, Black police displayed more pro-white/anti-Black bias than other Black people."

“Many Black men feel wearing a mask is a bigger threat than the coronavirus… Black individuals also appear more likely to be targeted by police for simply wearing masks. In a heartbreaking calculus, many are choosing not to wear them at all."

“Analysis demonstrated, first, that Black officers were consistently rated more positively than both White and Asian officers” & “In sum, our findings offer some support for the idea that increasing the representativeness of UK policing, … will reap dividends."

“When one is confronted with the stark racial disparities in arrest… the cognitively simplest reaction is simply to ascribe to different groups different propensities for criminality… This misattribution… therefore need not inspire us to corrective action."

“While the officers acknowledged [joking] existed and that it was racial, officers perceived the joking as harmless and merely as part of the occupation; as a part of the typical policing experience.” & “The joking is contextualized as common, harmless, and explicable."

“Federal… investigations concluded that the use of excessive lethal force was prevalent in some police departments along with patterns of civil rights violations… In 2017, these investigations of police departments were halted by the… Trump Administration."

Chicago’s “understanding of homicide evolved from Black bootleggers in the 1920s, to civil rights agitators in the 1960s, to gangs in the 1980s, and unemployed mentor-less Black youth in 2016."

“Black and Hispanic [school] girls who receive special education faced the greatest disparities, as they were six times more likely to be referred to law enforcement and seven times more likely to be arrested than White girls who receive special education."

“We found that Black Canadian and Indigenous people are more likely to be arrested for cannabis possession than White people.” & “The limited evidence available suggests that cannabis use varies little across racial groups in Canada."

“Black female victims were significantly more likely to be portrayed as ‘bad’ people… Stories about White… victims were significantly more likely… to describe the victim as preyed upon by a predator… [and] produce sympathetic overall narratives."

“Chicago PD has kept… a gang database since the 1980s… People can be added to the database at the discretion of Chicago police … who are not required to provide any evidence of gang affiliation or criminal activity… More than 95% are black or Latinx."

“Law enforcement-related deaths of unarmed black [people can lead] … to distrust… [of] public institutions… We found a decrease in [emergency room] rate among black New Yorkers [but not white NYers] immediately following [police] deaths of unarmed black New Yorkers."

“There does not appear to be any evidence that increased BLM protest activity had an impact on … crime [or] officer assaults.” & “Increased protests decrease the number of fatal interactions of Black individuals with police in the subsequent month."

“Police in schools with predominately students of color are more likely to be focused on discipline, whereas police in schools with predominately White students are more likely to be a part of emergency response teams collaborating in moments of crisis."

“Specifically, black boys exhibit significantly higher levels of cortisol if exposed to a [police-related death] in the 30 days prior… exposure in the last 30 days is associated with a 46% increase in average salivary cortisol.” But no effect on stress of white youth.

No relationship between suspect race and injury to police. “Thus, it seems rather unlikely that racial differences in how citizens view the police is relevant in explicating why police are more likely to use force against Black suspects."

“Victims killed in predominantly Black neighborhoods receive less news coverage than those killed in predominantly White neighborhoods… [and] were significantly less likely to be discussed as multidimensional humans… net of all controls."

“Analysis of traffic stop data across eight states concludes that about 30-40% of individual officers exhibit a relatively high propensity to stop black drivers, a figure that appears large compared to the ‘rotten apples’ hypothesis."

Police “deploy more officers to protests when the protests are against the police…Police at protests against them—especially Black-led demonstrations—tend to use more force… Explains why police…ignored the armed demonstrations against…public health orders."

“Whereas people in minority groups are stopped by police at a higher rate than whites, the hit rate (e.g. for possession of contraband…) for these groups is lower than it is for whites… Racial profiling is less successful at apprehending criminals than random searches."

"[Many] white people … seek to remedy systemic racism by prioritizing institutional change (defund the police) over individual change (stop calling the very police officers that you want to defund on Black and Brown people who are trying to enjoy public spaces)."

“The black homicide rate is positively associated with fear of crime, while the non-black homicide rate is not… black homicides inspire more fear of crime than non-black homicides… fear of crime can account for a sizable portion of… [incarceration] racial disparity."

"[Data] does not support the interpretation that differences in the severity of criminal conduct… alone can explain the substantial racial disparities… We believe that this evidence is consistent with racially disparate initial charging practices." (h/t @JulieMFaenza)

“Black drivers were overstopped by between 55% to 236%, depending on the measure… Black drivers were almost 4 times more likely to be searched subsequent to a stop than white drivers… White drivers were much more likely to be found with contraband that led to an arrest."

“In short, where property values are higher, police kill more people. Where poor and non-white people coexist with wealthy or white people, police kill more people. The higher property values are, the more race and class matter."

“We … find that white [police] supervisors are less likely to nominate black officers [for awards] than white or Hispanic officers. These results control for officer characteristics, including experience, arrest record, and misconduct."

“Police search black motorists 3x more than white motorists. But (!), searches of black motorists don’t yield more contraband."

“The productivity of searches of Black drivers is lower than that of white drivers for all three hit rates… of particular interest, given racial stereotypes on drug trafficking, the white arrest-worthy hit rate is 25.6% compared to 19.7% for Black drivers."

“Self-identified Republicans but not Democrats perceive higher levels of violence when a disliked group is protesting."

“The loss of years per 100,000 people over their collective lifetimes is largest for Black men, with… 3,772 years are lost to police use of force… Black men’s cumulative loss of life is just over 2.5 times white men’s."

“Boys of color… are more likely… to be disciplined in school with… potential diversion into the school-to-prison pipeline. If they do come into contact with police… they are more likely to be placed in the juvenile justice system rather than… a diversion program."

Significant, long-lasting increase in discretionary stops of Black drivers following Trump rallies (no effect on drivers of other races or following other candidates' rallies). h/t @aortmannphd

"[Fryer] does not establish credible evidence on the presence or absence of discrimination against African Americans in police shootings" & “Absence of any considered analysis of… endogeneity of interactions… undermines any conclusion that there is no discrimination."

“When cities rely more heavily on fines, fees, and forfeitures… racial disparity in searches increases… contraband hit-rates increase sharply for whites as a reliance on fees increases, but not for blacks."

“The rate of stops for Black drivers decreased 15% between 2009 and 2019, while the rate of stops for white drivers fell by 28%… In 2019, the rate of stops for Black drivers was more than twice that of white drivers.” (h/t @JulieMFaenza)

“Black parents and parents with stronger police legitimacy attitudes reported they would place greater importance on transmitting messages to their children about compliance with the police."

“Although our data and statistical approach were valid to estimate the question we actually tested…given continued misuse of the article (e.g. MacDonald 2020) we felt the right decision was to retract the article rather than publish further corrections.” cc:@ManhattanInst

“Enfranchisement of black voters leads to a reduction in black arrest rates, but only when CLEOs are elected, rather than appointed” & “In the presence of elected police chiefs… arrests of blacks …fall in counties that were … covered [by the Voting Rights Act]."

“Black officers were more likely to have negative perceptions of their interactions with colleagues than Whites, but Blacks had higher perceptions of the culture of the department, i.e., its policies and procedures and standards used in assessment and promotion."

“Having been stopped by police was related to… depression among both White and Black young adults… While the association remained after accounting for criminal behavior… among Blacks, the association was fully explained by… criminal behavior among Whites.” (@vbacak)

“Police did change alongside changes in a neighborhood’s racial makeup and increases in real estate prices net of any changes in crime.” & “Net of crime…police made more order-maintenance… arrests underscoring policing’s role in early-stage urban ‘renewal.'” @BrendenBeck

“Choosing to profile specific crime areas but not others … runs the risk of criminalising individuals … who belong to a specific racialised or lower social-economic community.” (@FiekeJ @DataJusticeLab, h/t @geomblog)

“From [the police] perspective, racism has not been perpetuated if the officer is not racist. In this case, the officer was just looking for criminals… [But the] idea of what a ‘criminal’ looks like is based on a racial stereotype."

“Prosecutors joining police unions would also, likely, bolster the view that prosecutors collude with the police to prevent criminal justice reform from taking root even with reformist elected prosecutors in office and that such offices are usually systemically racist."

“We find that the use of force against African American subjects significantly increases the week after an African American individual injures the officer’s peer… Surprisingly … force against a White suspect falls … after a White assailant injures an officer."

“Protesters’ claims of structural exclusions and state violence threatens the reality and core ideas of the white frame… Instead of engaging with a non-white reality, patriarchal patriots instead focused on the threats and the harms they experienced from the protests."

“Police officers often use the charge of ‘resisting arrest’ to criminalize black people who try to defend themselves from brutal, punitive, and often illegal police actions. They also do so to justify the violence it takes to compel compliance—even … in taking a life."

“Protestors… in opposition to white power activity were perceived by police as ‘disobedient’ … In contrast, white power mobilization was viewed as nonthreatening even though some of the organizing groups have a history of … domestic terrorism."

“What should be done by those who… want to ‘make blue lives matter’? Unfortunately, those who originally trumpeted this slogan… appear to be blind to useful approaches… due to a myopic preoccupation with vilifying Black Lives Matter… motivated by defensiveness."

“Like previous research I find clear evidence of bias in police-caused killings using data from 2015 to 2018. … Latinos were 1.26 times as likely as whites … Blacks were 1.38 times as likely as whites to have been unarmed prior to getting killed by police."

“When higher short-run revenue is necessary, officers shift their limited resources of time to increased targeting of white drivers. … police focus … on people of color in the absence of fiscal distress, despite lower hitrates among these motorists than white drivers."

“The homicide of McDonald was also notable for what it revealed in the internal workings of the Chicago Police Department—a culture of silence that protects, rather than roots out, ‘bad apples.'"

“Policing practices may have directly increased… the risk that individuals become infected with COVID-19… forced crowding—on streets, in police cars, on buses, and in jails—and the use of ‘riot control agents’ … cornering protesters in tight spaces … (‘kettling’)…"

“The fact that many of the officers … minimize the problem of race-based disparities, place blame on external actors, including members of the media and the interested public, or deny it outright, suggests an unwillingness to recognize the legitimacy of the … problem."

“From a statistical point of view, focusing on one racial group more than another consequently serves as a self-fulfilling prophecy, skewing the crime stats towards that particular racial group, regardless of the ‘true’ crime rate associate with that group."

“Police killings were positively and significantly associated with syphilis and gonorrhoea rates among Black residents. Each additional police killing in 2015 was associated with syphilis rates that were 7.5% higher and gonorrhoea rates that were 4.0% higher in 2016."

“A criminal suspect with a prior record is substantially more apt than a suspect without a criminal record to be arrested by police.” & “Black suspects with a prior criminal history also fail to have an elevated likelihood of arrest unless they target White victims."

Fryer (finally) shows some* regret that his results have been the racists’ favorite rallying cry.*